Mitch Albom’s Altered View of Life

After Mitch graduated from college, he headed for New York to start working on his dream of being a renowned musician of which he later discovered of failing for the first time in his life. When he lost his favorite uncle to pancreatic cancer, he realized how valuable time is and decided to get a master’s degree in journalism instead of pursuing a career in music. He became a sports writer then became a man driven by career and ambition. He later on became successful that he wrote for sports books, did radio shows and appeared recurrently on TV until he saw his old friend who was also his favorite professor in college, Morrie Schwartz, on TV.   He learned that Morrie had amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) which has no cure. When he decided to visit Morrie after so many years of not seeing him, it became a regular weekly meeting for them every Tuesday, talking about life, from which Mitch learned a different perspective, a different view. Morrie told him, â€Å"Dying is only one thing to be sad over Mitch.   Living unhappily is something else.†Ã‚   Morrie also said that people become mean only when they are threatened which is what our culture does then they start looking out only for themselves and make money their god. Morrie made him realize how he has been giving more priority to his work instead of starting a family with his wife Janine.     Mitch realized that he really did need to invest in the human family and in people as what Morrie advised him.   Morrie showed him how to courageously face things in life even on the verge of death.   Having the last few weeks of Morrie’s life spent with him taught Mitch so many things that he would always hold dear. Mitch learned what mistakes to avoid, what to look out for, when to pay attention to his loved ones and hear them as if it were for the last time.   Morrie also made him understand that there is no such thing as â€Å"too late† for anything in this life. WORKS CITED Albom, Mitch. Tuesdays with Morrie. New York: Doubleday,1997               

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology

Culture plays an important part in one’s life as it relates to the field of psychology. Culture enables one to define him or herself and differ from one to another, and helps one survive. Culture facilitates self-expression, through language, appearance, and behavior. Culture exists everywhere and is a product of one’s environment. The significance of culture and its influence by oneself and others will be explained in this paper. In addition, the role of critical thinking in cross-cultural psychology and the scientific method involved with cross-cultural research will be addressed, and defined.Definition of Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology Culture is learned, passed down, from generation to generation and strongly influences individual behavior. It is an existing element in one’s environment, shaped by oneself and many others. Culture either shapes or influences one and is what makes one human. Psychology is the study of human behavior and performance; the refore, it is vital that the cultural and cross-cultural aspects are considered in determining the cause of one’s actions.Behavior is affected by sources both biological and environmental in nature but these do not entirely explain human behavior. There must be an acknowledgement of the social-cultural conditions, in which behavior occurs. Thus, cultural psychology looks to identify the link that between culture and psychology. This recognition allows one to perceive that cognitive operations are variable products occurring between culture and oneself in the kind of environment by which one is surrounded (Segal, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Culture is two-fold, either bringing people together or pulling people apart.This newer discipline of cross-cultural psychology, acknowledges important factors and considers many cultures when defining the actions and behaviors of individuals. Culture should be not confused with society, race, and ethnicity. Though these factors contri bute to individualism, they differ from culture itself. For example, culture is a shared experience within a group and leads to specific behaviors among the group, whereas society is made of people. Cross-cultural psychology uses various approaches to facilitate one’s understanding of how human behavior varies in diverse cultural settings.These include evolutionary, sociological, and ecocultural. The evolutionary approach, for instance, considers biological factors contributing to one’s behavior whereas the ecocultural approach considers that a person cannot be acknowledged without considering one’s environment (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The Relationship between Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology Cultural psychology interfaces with other disciplines, including philosophy, and anthropology. While other disciplines permit a wider perspective, cultural psychology focuses solely on how one’s culture affects his or her behavior and how this connection comes i nto existence.G Cultural psychology is aware that human energy cannot be solely explicated by other factors including one’s genetic predispositions. Instead, cultural psychology sees one’s mind and culture forming a unity that should be not separated when trying to explain behavior. On the other hand, cross-cultural psychology, despite interfacing with other fields such as anthropology and history, prefers to compare various cultures against each other while discovering more about differences and similarities and their effect on humanity.Both disciplines clearly consider the aspects of culture; therefore, their starting points do not differ much. However, they also deviate from each other in that cultural psychology is mostly concerned with understanding the relationship one has with a culture, whereas cross-cultural psychology is mainly interested in the comparison of various cultures (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The Role of Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology W hen used correctly, critical thinking can, and will benefit one in countless ways.Life, just as humanity itself, is very complex and at times, difficult to understand. Being able to go through life with a certain purpose and sense, and being able to understand human nature is not an easy task, often requiring specific knowledge and experience in doing so. Critical thinking provides the necessary tools to enable one to navigate through the fog of life with the determined intent. However, critical thinking is not something one is born with; rather, it is something that needs to be learned and trained.Thinking abstractly, being able to decipher problematic puzzles, coordinating thoughts accurately and intentionally, and being able to communicate succinctly require the use of critical thinking. Thinking critically means asking the right questions and solving problems. If one is unskilled and unqualified using the tools provided by critical thinking, then one most likely is not developin g to his or her fullest. Part of being able to apply critical thinking also means one can learn, and learn even more.Various characteristics describe a critical thinker and are, for instance, the correct use of language, the ability of organizing, and patience when making vital decisions (Hunter, 2009). All these above mentioned factors matter to the field of cross-cultural psychology. For example, language can be at times very tricky and therefore, lead to discrimination. The correct translation is very significant so that one can understand someone else in the way he or she wants to be comprehended. However, interlingual rendition is not easy and translating one word to another does not entirely mean the purpose of the word used is understood correctly.One clearly must know that language can be applied in many ways and can traumatize, be incontrovertible, and inspiring. Another way critical thinking supports cross-cultural psychology is in the research performed by this discipline . Being able to overlook biases, leave out emotions, chose right from wrong, and acknowledge the validity and reliability of research requires critical thinking skills. In addition, critical thinking becomes a necessity whenever a comparison is made of different groups and therefore cultures.These are just few of many examples of how critical thinking helps cross-cultural psychology. Without it, one’s understanding of how culture affects diverse behaviors could become affected leading to wrong impressions (Segal, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Methodology Associated with Cross-Cultural Research Research is very significant to the field of cross-cultural psychology. Without the implementation of research, the subjects appealing to cross-cultural psychology would mainly rely on assumptions. Cross-cultural psychologists are very interested in examining commonalities between cultures.He or she is occupied with how they interact with each other resulting in certain behaviors and psychologists do so by describing, explaining, foretelling, and managing. Doing research means carrying out a scientific investigation and using suitable methods. Cross-cultural psychology uses a research methodology that can be divided further into two subcategories, the quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research, which is done through observation, measures human behavior by utilizing the mode, the median, and the mean (central tendency).In this process, four different scales can be used to measure, which are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Alternatively, qualitative research is preferably done in unconditioned settings, also referred to natural settings. This kind of research method is chosen when measuring variables are impossible to collect, measurement tools are not on hand, and when specific scales cannot be read. Further, there are two different strategies, the application-oriented strategy and the comparativist strategy, from which a researcher can chose when conducting research.In addition, a researcher can also utilize and benefit from various strategies to collect samples such as through convenience, systematic, or random sampling (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The psychological methods available to a cross-cultural psychologist to investigate are â€Å"observation (naturalistic and laboratory), survey (direct and indirect), experimental studies (independent and dependent variables), content-analysis, psychobiography, meta-analysis, focus-group method† (Shiraev & Levy, 2010, pp. 35-40). When conducting cross-cultural studies, certain obstacles may appear.For instance, language can create additional problems when research is done; therefore, the correct translation is essential. The researcher should be capable of translating a specific method as authentically as possible. In addition, a good researcher should also pay attention when comparing two phenomena (acknowledge similarities) and avoid biases of generalization at all times (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Conclusion Because culture plays such an important part in one’s life, it is crucial to acknowledge it when determining the causes of one’s behavior.Culture is something appearing at all times and is manmade. Clearly, cultural and cross-cultural psychologies are two essential disciplines, which help one comprehend the affect culture has on an individual and his or her environment. Through cultural psychology, one can see the connection between culture, psychology, and therefore, behavior. Existing parallel to cultural psychology, cross-cultural psychology helps one acknowledge the differences and similarities existing between cultures and the affect they have on one’s action. Without it, one will never entirely understand the complex nature of humanity. Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology Culture plays an important part in one’s life as it relates to the field of psychology. Culture enables one to define him or herself and differ from one to another, and helps one survive. Culture facilitates self-expression, through language, appearance, and behavior. Culture exists everywhere and is a product of one’s environment. The significance of culture and its influence by oneself and others will be explained in this paper. In addition, the role of critical thinking in cross-cultural psychology and the scientific method involved with cross-cultural research will be addressed, and defined.Definition of Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology Culture is learned, passed down, from generation to generation and strongly influences individual behavior. It is an existing element in one’s environment, shaped by oneself and many others. Culture either shapes or influences one and is what makes one human. Psychology is the study of human behavior and performance; the refore, it is vital that the cultural and cross-cultural aspects are considered in determining the cause of one’s actions.Behavior is affected by sources both biological and environmental in nature but these do not entirely explain human behavior. There must be an acknowledgement of the social-cultural conditions, in which behavior occurs. Thus, cultural psychology looks to identify the link that between culture and psychology. This recognition allows one to perceive that cognitive operations are variable products occurring between culture and oneself in the kind of environment by which one is surrounded (Segal, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Culture is two-fold, either bringing people together or pulling people apart.This newer discipline of cross-cultural psychology, acknowledges important factors and considers many cultures when defining the actions and behaviors of individuals. Culture should be not confused with society, race, and ethnicity. Though these factors contri bute to individualism, they differ from culture itself. For example, culture is a shared experience within a group and leads to specific behaviors among the group, whereas society is made of people. Cross-cultural psychology uses various approaches to facilitate one’s understanding of how human behavior varies in diverse cultural settings.These include evolutionary, sociological, and ecocultural. The evolutionary approach, for instance, considers biological factors contributing to one’s behavior whereas the ecocultural approach considers that a person cannot be acknowledged without considering one’s environment (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The Relationship between Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology Cultural psychology interfaces with other disciplines, including philosophy, and anthropology. While other disciplines permit a wider perspective, cultural psychology focuses solely on how one’s culture affects his or her behavior and how this connection comes i nto existence.G Cultural psychology is aware that human energy cannot be solely explicated by other factors including one’s genetic predispositions. Instead, cultural psychology sees one’s mind and culture forming a unity that should be not separated when trying to explain behavior. On the other hand, cross-cultural psychology, despite interfacing with other fields such as anthropology and history, prefers to compare various cultures against each other while discovering more about differences and similarities and their effect on humanity.Both disciplines clearly consider the aspects of culture; therefore, their starting points do not differ much. However, they also deviate from each other in that cultural psychology is mostly concerned with understanding the relationship one has with a culture, whereas cross-cultural psychology is mainly interested in the comparison of various cultures (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The Role of Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology W hen used correctly, critical thinking can, and will benefit one in countless ways.Life, just as humanity itself, is very complex and at times, difficult to understand. Being able to go through life with a certain purpose and sense, and being able to understand human nature is not an easy task, often requiring specific knowledge and experience in doing so. Critical thinking provides the necessary tools to enable one to navigate through the fog of life with the determined intent. However, critical thinking is not something one is born with; rather, it is something that needs to be learned and trained.Thinking abstractly, being able to decipher problematic puzzles, coordinating thoughts accurately and intentionally, and being able to communicate succinctly require the use of critical thinking. Thinking critically means asking the right questions and solving problems. If one is unskilled and unqualified using the tools provided by critical thinking, then one most likely is not developin g to his or her fullest. Part of being able to apply critical thinking also means one can learn, and learn even more.Various characteristics describe a critical thinker and are, for instance, the correct use of language, the ability of organizing, and patience when making vital decisions (Hunter, 2009). All these above mentioned factors matter to the field of cross-cultural psychology. For example, language can be at times very tricky and therefore, lead to discrimination. The correct translation is very significant so that one can understand someone else in the way he or she wants to be comprehended. However, interlingual rendition is not easy and translating one word to another does not entirely mean the purpose of the word used is understood correctly.One clearly must know that language can be applied in many ways and can traumatize, be incontrovertible, and inspiring. Another way critical thinking supports cross-cultural psychology is in the research performed by this discipline . Being able to overlook biases, leave out emotions, chose right from wrong, and acknowledge the validity and reliability of research requires critical thinking skills. In addition, critical thinking becomes a necessity whenever a comparison is made of different groups and therefore cultures.These are just few of many examples of how critical thinking helps cross-cultural psychology. Without it, one’s understanding of how culture affects diverse behaviors could become affected leading to wrong impressions (Segal, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 1999). Methodology Associated with Cross-Cultural Research Research is very significant to the field of cross-cultural psychology. Without the implementation of research, the subjects appealing to cross-cultural psychology would mainly rely on assumptions. Cross-cultural psychologists are very interested in examining commonalities between cultures.He or she is occupied with how they interact with each other resulting in certain behaviors and psychologists do so by describing, explaining, foretelling, and managing. Doing research means carrying out a scientific investigation and using suitable methods. Cross-cultural psychology uses a research methodology that can be divided further into two subcategories, the quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research, which is done through observation, measures human behavior by utilizing the mode, the median, and the mean (central tendency).In this process, four different scales can be used to measure, which are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Alternatively, qualitative research is preferably done in unconditioned settings, also referred to natural settings. This kind of research method is chosen when measuring variables are impossible to collect, measurement tools are not on hand, and when specific scales cannot be read. Further, there are two different strategies, the application-oriented strategy and the comparativist strategy, from which a researcher can chose when conducting research.In addition, a researcher can also utilize and benefit from various strategies to collect samples such as through convenience, systematic, or random sampling (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The psychological methods available to a cross-cultural psychologist to investigate are â€Å"observation (naturalistic and laboratory), survey (direct and indirect), experimental studies (independent and dependent variables), content-analysis, psychobiography, meta-analysis, focus-group method† (Shiraev & Levy, 2010, pp. 35-40). When conducting cross-cultural studies, certain obstacles may appear.For instance, language can create additional problems when research is done; therefore, the correct translation is essential. The researcher should be capable of translating a specific method as authentically as possible. In addition, a good researcher should also pay attention when comparing two phenomena (acknowledge similarities) and avoid biases of generalization at all times (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Conclusion Because culture plays such an important part in one’s life, it is crucial to acknowledge it when determining the causes of one’s behavior.Culture is something appearing at all times and is manmade. Clearly, cultural and cross-cultural psychologies are two essential disciplines, which help one comprehend the affect culture has on an individual and his or her environment. Through cultural psychology, one can see the connection between culture, psychology, and therefore, behavior. Existing parallel to cultural psychology, cross-cultural psychology helps one acknowledge the differences and similarities existing between cultures and the affect they have on one’s action. Without it, one will never entirely understand the complex nature of humanity.

Britain Between the Wars Essay

The armistice came into effect at 11.00am on 11th November 1918 and effectively brought the fighting on the Western Front to a close. In more than four years of war Britain and the Empire had lost more than 750,000 dead in France and Flanders, with many times that wounded and sick. The political and social life were ruined not only by the war, but also by the severe crises and by the dividing of the society into classes. The 1920’s and 1930’s were unhappy decades for most of the people in Britain. The Liberal Lloyd George enjoyed wide support by the Conservative party and duly formed a new coalition government. He immediately transformed the British war effort, taking firm control of both military and domestic policy. A general election the first for 8 years was held in December 1918. This election was often called â€Å"the coupon election†. Conservative leader Bonar Law identified candidates who agreed to support them with a letter of endorsement, signed by both, and known as a â€Å"coupon†. Coupons were issued to 159 Liberal candidates and 364 Conservatives though in some cases, they were rejected. This election are also considered the first universal elections in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in which for the first time the majority of poorer British and Catholic Irish adults were allowed to vote for Parliament. The decision of Lloyd George to create a coalition between the Liberal and Conservative party hardened the divisions within the Liberal party and after the election the division of the Liberal party was even deepened. In 1920’s the Labour party succeeded in overtaking the Liberal party and establishing itself as one of the country’s two main political parties. By the end of 1921 unemployment has risen beyond 2 million. There were several reasons for the decline in industry after the First World War. Structural weaknesses in the British economy meant a disproportionate number of jobs were in the traditional industries. A lack of pre-war technological developments and post war competition damaged the economy and the new industries which emerged employed fewer people. At the same time Britain began to lose her overseas markets due to strong foreign competition. A committee on unemployment was set up in 1920 and recommended public works schemes to ease unemployment, this led to the establishment of the Unemployment Grants Committee. The government wished, also, to return to the gold standard, a move which would have required cuts in public spending. In Unemployment Insurance Act 1920 extended unemployment benefits to cover all workers who earned less than  £250. The â€Å"Seeking Work Test† was introduced in 1921, it stated to receive full unemployment benefit there had to be evidence the recipient was looking for work. The Addison Act after Dr. Christopher Addison, the then Minister for Housing was passed to allow the building of new houses after the First World War, and marked the start of a long 20th century tradition of state-owned housing, which would much later evolve into council estates. Education Act or know as Fisher Act was enacted in the 1918, it extended educational provision, increased the powers and duties of the Board of Education, raised the school leaving age from 12 to 14 and gave all young workers right of access to day release education. (The raising of the leaving age was not immediately implemented, however, and had to wait until the 1921 Act). Other features of the 1918 Education Act included the provision of ancillary services (medical inspection, nursery schools, centres for pupils with special needs, etc.).

Water Rocket Design Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Water Rocket Design - Research Paper Example The typical construction of a water rocket consists of household materials such as discarded plastic bottles, water, duct tape etc. Typical water rockets are constructed out of plastic bottles. The plastic bottles may be used individually or in combination after cutting out their bases and joining them together. Water is filled inside the plastic bottle rocket body but some space is left empty. The plastic bottle filled with water and partially empty is then turned upside down and sealed. This aids preserving the water inside. Compressed air or other gas injected into the water filled plastic bottle pressurizes the water inside. Typical sources of compressed air include bicycle pumps or portable air compressors. Similarly, other gases such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen may be used using compressed gas cylinders. However, using nitrogen may be dangerous given the high compression ratios used to store nitrogen. The compressed gas tends to provide the means to store potential energy ins ide the rocket body. The stored potential energy is releasable from the rocket when desired. The mass fraction of the water rocket increases with the use of water. This allows the provision of greater impulse when compressed air and water escape from the water rocket body. In addition to water, other additives are also used to increase the mass fraction of water rockets. ... This paper will look into the construction of water rockets to teach students mathematical principles while looking into learning styles, safety and other pedagogical considerations. Water Rocket Design Principles Water rockets are a direct application of Newton’s third law of motion describing action and reaction. The release of compressed gas and water allows the rocket to lift itself skywards for considerable distances. The exact physics behind water rockets depends in large part on the stored energy inside the rocket and the air drag encountered by the moving rocket. However, a lack of standardized construction techniques means that a number of different physics models are used to delineate how water rockets operate. The final outputs from a water rocket include the total height achieved as well as the total duration of flight. These outputs depend on a number of different inputs including the pressure of compressed gas, the volume of water used, the nozzle configuration a nd the weight of the water rocket body. The relationship between these inputs and outputs are expressible in a variety of different ways. Various models are available to delineate the relationship between these inputs and outputs. However, none of the available models guarantees a high degree of accuracy so these models can be best used as approximations. Mathematical Relationships In order to simplify the relationship between the inputs and outputs for a water rocket, students were presented with a simple water rocket mathematical model. The physics behind water rockets requires exploration of advanced concepts such as (Gommes, 2010): incompressibility of water; compressibility of

Stages of Art development for children ages 2 thru 8 Essay

Stages of Art development for children ages 2 thru 8 - Essay Example For instances, the drawings are product oriented, and the child’s characterization and conception about the environment are more pronounced than objects. In this stage, the young adolescent is product oriented and his or her interest in drawing moves from drawing objects to drawing nature’s things such as the human body. He or she may also start drawing cartoons and exaggerated characters such as doodles (Krimsky, 1999). In an effort to improve the art and creativity experiences offered to children, I would provide the children with drawing materials and surfaces on which drawing would be done. I would ensure that the children in class have got enough space that would facilitate the drawing process. In addition to this, I would lay down measures aimed at making the children compete among themselves within the class setting. I would also bring them objects that they would be required to draw when they would be required to do so within the class. For me to implement the above improvements, I would require support from parents and the teaching staff. The parents of the children will contribute to this process by buying the children the required drawing materials. The teaching staff members will assist in guiding the children during learning lessons. I would also involve the school administration by asking them to allocate the students sometime that would be used in carrying out drawing activities. I would want to know the factors that would serve to motivate the children in drawing activities. I would be interested in enabling children to be creative and come up with unique drawings. In addition to this, I would also like to know how the children would be handled so that they develop their careers in drawing. Creativity may reduce with age in children during their growth stages, but it does not disappear permanently. In fact, older people may reclaim creativity that faded away at a young age. Development in artworks should be viewed

- Art and Music Appreciation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

- Art and Music Appreciation - Essay Example The human form, landscapes and still life were naturalistic, without any attempt to interpret. Because of this rigor, art reached an exquisite level of representation, until the arrival of photography, which did it all in a flash. The door was open to artists to do more than just picture perfectly: they started expressing abstract concepts, and insert their own content into form. Exciting movements such as impressionism, cubism and Dada followed, but artists had to know the rules they were breaking. To understand the limits they were breaking out of, those limits had to be understood. Artists today still need to know classic conventions of perspective, color, slight and shade and so on, in order to break out of them in their own way. In that sense, the conventions are here to stay. Although they do not sound that different to my modern ear, the madrigal by Lassus must have been scandalously witty and playful. Besides, it imitated church music and turned it secular, if not profane. Pious people listening to this music would expect sedate rhythm and pious words. Instead they get different voices tripping over each other and suggestive words! In conservative Europe of the mid-1500s, it would have been outrageous, even though Lassus was a respected Maestro di Cappella. I liked it because the men seem to be smiling as they sang. In any medieval plainchant, you can hear the serious holy intention, like: no funny business, these are God’s songs. I do not know enough music to hear if Lassus used the Devil’s Interval, a note (C and F#) that was not allowed to be played by the strict church of the time, because it gave people too much pleasure. But I think that came later, after about another 200

Mid term exam essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mid term exam - Essay Example I have never had the opportunity, or the confidence, to try my hand at creative writing. In fact, the idea of becoming a writer never crossed my mind. I held the view that ‘Writing is very difficult’ and is suitable only for very gifted, clever persons. I started learning English only in the seventh grade. Unfortunately, English remained a difficult foreign language to be studied at school, and I did not do any reading outside of my classes. I completed High School in Saudi Arabia without doing any additional reading in English. On my arrival in the United States as a baccalaureate student, I was fully occupied with making adjustments to a strange country and culture. As I started my study of Respiratory Therapy at the University of Indianapolis, I was completely focused on meeting my academic requirements and did not do any reading. It is my good fortune that English 102 is a part of my course. English 102 has rekindled my interest in reading. I am totally surprised at the variety of books available in English. There is something to suit the taste of every individual. I realize that, to this point of my life, I have made the mistake of ignoring any reading or writing which did not fall into my academic syllabus. I have been introduced to poems and stories which have opened a new world for me. I consider it a success that I am beginning to understand and deeply enjoy reading stories and poems in English. The delight I get is definitely worth the effort. I am also slowly beginning to think that I can also try to write! Of course, I realize that this is going to be a very slow process, as I have a long way to go in mastering the English language. But I am developing the confidence that I can read and write good English. The piece of short fiction which has kindled a genuine delight in English literature in me is Ernest Hemingway’s story, â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants.† I am

Plan for Establishing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Plan for Establishing - Essay Example Career development process is a process that involves the identification of unique personal abilities of employees and their potential to achieve set goals in their careers. They want to pursue with regard to their careers. Given that the employees comprise of specialists in various departments, Veracity pact limited will benefit a lot from highly skilled manpower. Then employees set their goals and objectives. Every objective selected by the employees should be time-bound. It should also specify materials for the learning process, the mode of evaluation and the expected results are to be outlined. This is to help them have the blue-print of what they desire to achieve over a given duration of time. It is at this level that they are required to set the timeframe of their development goals. In addition, they are to analyze their expectations in sync with the major objectives of the organization which is to create wealth and maximize profits of the company (Rothwell, 45). The appropriate planning is paramount because financial resources are required to support the exercise of career development. In addition, the management needs to make considerations on the pattern to be followed in granting the employees opportunities to update their skills ion their various jobs. Then programme of carrying out the studies is prepared for efficiency. Their proposals are collected by the supervisors and submitted to management for it to have ample time to do strategic planning on how activities are conducted. This is performed to avoid dissatisfaction and friction from employees who are to benefit from the career development. A brief interviewing of employees is carried out by the supervisor in order to assess the career gaps that exist among the employees. For instance, there might be a lack of expertise in some fields of work, miscommunications, lack of

Write a 125 words for each question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Write a 125 words for each question - Essay Example On the other hand, Romania remained largely unaffected. It wasn’t until the leader of the Communist Party returned from a state visit to Iran that the people came out in protest. Mikhail Gorbachev realised that the Communist states were struggling financially and needed more openness with the West. President Ronald Reagan supported military groups who opposed communism in their own countries. His ideas became known as Reagan Doctrine. 2. The Christian right first started in response to the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which outlawed discrimination against women and blacks. Another reason was the liberal culture of the 1960s, and was motivated by fear of social breakdown. The Christian right had an increasing role in American politics and vocally supported particular candidates (usually Republican) by producing voter guides and distributing them to conservative Christian churches. The Christian right gained exposure between the 1960s and 1980s through increased Christian television p rogramming. Jimmy Swaggart was one of the most famous televangelists of the 80s; by 1983 he had more than 250 television stations broadcasting his program. Other televangelists, such as Jim Bakker, were criticized for preaching prosperity doctrine and acquiring considerable wealth.

A Study Of Anatomy And Psychology Essay Example for Free

A Study Of Anatomy And Psychology Essay The procedure in lifting the leg to climb a stair is a complex one which involves a huge amount of technology inter-transfer between the brain and the eventual skeletal muscle. There is initiation of the movement at the brain which is transmitted via specialized white fibre tracts to the hip flexors via the intermediate spinal cord, involving a very complex mechanism at the cellular level   The initiation of the   process is at the motor cortex (Ms I) of the brain. The primary motor area is located at the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe. The area controlling the motion of the lower limbs lies towards the superior surface of the brain. Within this area lies the cell body of the primary neuron. These neurons are known as upper motor neurons (UMN). These UMNs receive modulating impulse from the inputs from the cerebellum and the basal ganglia via the extrapyramidal pathways. These tracts modulate the gross movement initiated at the frontal cortex. In turn these areas are modulated by afferent signals from ascending spino cerebellar, and spino-thalamic pathways. The complex the signal initiated at the nucleus of the cell body is transmitted electronically via the axon of the myelinated neuron via the mode of salutatory conduction. The myelin sheath which surrounds the axon of nerves that involve fast transport, breaks at intermediate regions known as Nodes of Ranvier. The electrical impulse moves in   a jumping manner at these nodes nerve transmission as a neural impulse, generated by the formation of a nerve action potential. Like all excitable tissue, nerves maintain a resting membrane potential that is the difference of voltage across the membrane of the neuron. In neurons this value is   70 mV. This voltage difference is maintained by the Na/K pump on the membranes. This impulse generated at the axon hillock is transmitted via the depolarizing phase which allows sodium ions ingress into cells via opening of the Na channels. This entry of Na in one portion allows activation of other Na channels, causing depolarization of the adjacent region of the neuron. Subsequently repolarization occurs via the opening of K channels, which restores the membrane potential. Thus this process continues which allows the transmission of impulse. Many such nerves together descend as the descending cortico spinal tract in the pyramidal system, which travels through the midbrain into the spinal cord, decussating at the level of midbrain( 90% of the fibres decussating and forming the lateral spinothalamic tract) and again at the level of spinal cord ( the other 10%, forming the anterior spinothalamic tract) . It is the former which is responsible for the lower limb movements. The cortico-spinal tract travels in the anterior horn cell of the spinal cord till the lumbar level where they synapse with the spinal ventral root neuron (lower motor neuron). A single post-synaptic neuron receives signals from many neurons. At the axon terminal, the propagation of impulses leads to release of neurotransmitters, which are stored in specialized vesicles. The released Ach diffuses into the synaptic cleft and binds with receptors on the post synaptic membrane to produce excitatory post synaptic potentials. This leads to generation and propagation of impulse in nerves which are destined to innervate the neuro-muscular junction. At the neuro-muscular junction, Ach is released, which diffuses into the synovial cleft and binds to receptors in the motor end plate, and triggers a muscle action potential. The released Ach is destroyed by the acetylcholinestrase. At the level of the sarcolemma of the muscles, the muscle AP travels along T-tubules, opening Ca release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca binds to troponin-tropomysin complex, which releases the myosin heads, these then bind to the actin thin filaments, and draws them closer to the M line. Meanwhile bringing the Z disc closer. This leads to muscle fibre contraction. This is a self propagating sequence eventually leading to the contraction of ilio-psoas muscle, which causes the flexion of thigh on the pelvis. Each nerve fibre innervates many musle fibres ( about 150). This is   the motor unit. The greater the number of motor units recruited by the nerve action potential, the greater the force of contraction of the muscles. In the spinal cord, nerve impulse travels along the lumbar plexus (L1-L5) to innervate the iliopsoas ( hip flexion- ilio-inguinal nerve), biceps femors, semitendinosus and semimembranosus ( knee flexion – sciatic nerve), ankle flexors ( EHl, EDL, TA – tibial nerve), leading to the person climbing the step. This excitatory impulse is also associated with the production of inhibitory action potential ( hyperpolarizing impulse) in the antagonists (eg the glutei, which must relax to allow flexors to act. In the event of raising of the upper limb above the head, to lift a book, the impulse travels along the cortico spinal tract till the level of the cervical cord to synapse with the lower motor neurons of the brachial plexus ( C3-T1). From here the nerve impulses travel to shoulder elevators ( supraspinatus, deltoid, trapezius, and latissimus dorsi)- posterior cord ), elbow extensor ( triceps and anconeus – radial nerve) wrist extensor ( ECRL, ECRB – radial nerve), finger flexors ( FDS, FDP – median nerve and the ulnar nerve)   and the intrinsics – ulnar nerve and the median nerve)

Balanced Score Card (BSC) Advantages and Disadvantages

Balanced Score Card (BSC) Advantages and Disadvantages Abstract The study reports an evidence of the efficiency and usefulness of the Balanced Score Card (BSC) as a management control and communication strategy. This paper firstly examines the available literature on management control and communication which has identified elements of strategic control and effective communication. Secondly, this study presents a model of control and communication significant to the Balanced Score Card. Thirdly, the study further investigates archival and practical interviews data to represent the utilization and also evaluates the effectiveness of control and communication of the Balanced Score Card. The study incorporates data collected from the various departments of a large, international manufacturing company. Data is collected from Indian administrators, managers and the Balanced Score Card designers whose divisions are the purpose of Balanced Score Card. The study congregates evidences in respect to the challenges encountered by many and as in this case even by a large, well financed multinational corporation associated with the implementation and designing the Balanced Score Card. These results may be broadly suitable to other companies planning to adopt or adopting the Balanced Score Card as a management and strategic control tool. The data points out that this particular Balanced Score Card, as applied and designed, is definitely an effective tool for managing corporate strategy. Obtained results also illustrate stress and divergence amongst the top and the middle level management concerning the suitability of certain aspects of the Balanced Score Card as an evaluation, communication and control mechanism. Certain aspects include conformation of laid-back relations amongst successful management control, positive effects, motivation and strategic alignment of the Balanced Score Card. These positive effects include the changes in development and implementation of both the customer focused services and the Balanced Score Card. In contrary, unsuccessful management control and communication originate conflicts and acts as a source of poor motivation in respect of the use of Balanced Score Card as an assessment device. Data Availability: All the data gathered for this research is regulated and supplied under a strict non-disclosure agreement, which necessitates the researcher to safeguard the company’s proprietary information and identity. Introduction The available academic and professional strategy literature asserts that numerous multi-nationals have discovered time-honoured performance measures (e.g., profits, return on investment, and ex post costs) to be inadequate strategies for judgmental action in today’s speedily changing, super-competitive environment. Solitary dependence on present, financial performance measures does not perhaps mirror the significance of present resource verdicts for upcoming financial performance (e.g., Dearden, 1969). However, several years ago, some organisations identified the significance of non-financial performance measures (e.g., General Electric during 1950’s), budding global competition and the mounting up of the TQM movement has broadened the appeal for non-financial measures of performance. Authors have piled up, both the academic and professional literature with suggestions to believe more on non-financial performance measures for both evaluating and managing organisations since the 1980’s (Berliner and Brimson 1988; Dixon et al. 1990; Johnson and Kaplan 1987; Nanni et al. 1988; Rappaport 1999). Along with the normative arguments, empirical research studies can also help in establishing the effectiveness and roles of non-financial measures of performance. Numerous studies have attempted to relate some specific non-financial performance measures to the financial performance (Ittner and Larcker 1998a; Behn and Riley 1999; Foster and Gupta 1999; Banker et al. 2000).1 Results of numerous human resources literature illustrates that, it’s the systems of non-financial performance measures that seems to be comparatively more reliable determinant of firm’s performance than the individual measures themselves. (Huselid 1995; Huselid et al. 1997; Becker and Huselid 1998). The purpose of this research is to study the impact and process of administering an organisation using the non-financial measures of 1 The ever rising body of research study which has examined empirical associations amongst the financial and the non-financial performance measures in a variety of industries and firms also includes Foster and Gupta (1990, 1999), Banker et al. (1993), Barth and McNichols (1994), Banker et al. (1995), Amir and Lev (1996), Banker et al.(1996), Ittner and Larcker (1997, 1998a), Perera et al. (1997), Behn and Riley (1999), Banker et al. (2000), Ghosh and Lusch (2000), Hughes (2000). These research studies repeatedly found significant associations the financial and non-financial measures of performance, although research studies of the effects of performance of including the non-financial measures in the compensation plans are comparatively less steady and consistent. Given the growing empirical and extensive theoretical support, it is not at-all astonishing that several companies report that they are switching to non-financial, forward-looking information for both evaluating present performance as well as for guiding decisions (Ittner and Larcker, 1998b). Performance, particularly in the context of Balanced Scorecard (BSC), a comprehensive structure of performance measurement system. The Balanced Score Card, popularized by Kaplan and Norton (1992, 1993, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c) and also accepted extensively across the globe, has been presented as a better and superior blend of financial and the non-financial measures of performance. 2 Balanced Score Card is projected to direct strategy growth, execution and communication because it clearly focuses on the financial as well as the non-financial measures of performance. Moreover, a well designed Balanced Score Card could also provide some unfailing feedback for performance evaluation and management control. Atkinson et al. (1997) regarded Balanced Score Card as one of the most momentous developments in the field of management accounting, justifiably attaining a strong research attention. Silk (1998) assessed that approximately 60 percent of the U.S. Fortune 500 companies are experimenting or have by now implemented a Balanced Score Card. Despite its elevated profile, astonishingly very little academic research has actually focused on either the outcomes or the claims of the Balanced Score Card (Ittner and Larcker 1998b). An expected question that arise is: does the Balanced Score Card’s use, content, implementation or format have recognizable effects on either the outcomes or the business decisions that could not be achieved with existing ways, in combination or alone? In the very first study of its category, Lipe and Salterio(2000) identified effects in decision making connected with the format of the Balanced Score Card. The layout of the performance measures in four associated groups appears to communicate decision-related information to subjects presenting a laboratory assessment task. Most of the other previous and current studies, however, are comparatively uncritical explanations of Balanced Score Card adoptions. Kaplan and Norton (1996b) debates that the Balanced Score Card is not principally an evaluation process, but it is a communication and strategic planning device to (1) explain links amongst leading and lagging measures of non-financial and financial performance and (2) offer some strategic assistance to the divisional managers. The Balanced Score Card asserts to describe the necessary steps for reaching financial success; for example, investment in some particular types of knowledge to improve the processes. If these links are valid replications of a company’s economic opportunities and productive and administrative 2 An identical approach for merging the numerous performance measures, the tableau de bord, has been implemented by certain French organisations for numerous years (Epstein and Manzoni 1997). processes, then the Balanced Score Card symbolizes and can also communicate the company’s working strategy. Moreover, communicating these links effectively throughout the company can be decisive to implementing that strategy fruitfully (Tucker et al. 1996; West and Meyer 1997). Some organisations may possibly also use non-financial measures as a basis of performance measurement. On the other hand, they might judicially use the financial performance measures for the purpose of evaluation or they can also enhance the performance by using the Balanced Score Card as a vade mecum to financial success (e.g., Rappaport 1999). The present research is aimed at investigating the management-control and communication attributes and the efficacy of a successful, large, multi-national company’s Balanced Score Card model. The research comprises of qualitative and archival data gathered through interviews with the managers, Balanced Score Card designers, and users to (1) measure the observed attributes of the Balanced Score Card as both a control and strategic communication device and (2) find confirmation of the Balanced Score Card’s evaluation impacts. The present research does not test as to if the company’s Balanced Score Card is a statistically suitable model of the company’s performance and activities. This attribute of the Balanced Score Card shall be tested in succeeding research (Malina 2001). The company commenced using the Balanced Score Card to enhance its strategy. The Balanced Score Card has largely affected the view point and the action of users, both adversely and beneficially. When all segments of the Balanced Score Card are effectively communicated and well designed (as per the criteria mentioned in the study), the Balanced Score Card appears to persuade and inspire the lower-level managers to correspond their activities to the company’s strategy. Additionally, as per managers beliefs these changes result in enhanced sub-unit performance. In spite of this, there is also a consistent confirmation that the weaknesses in strategic communication and the flaws and imperfections of the Balanced Score Card design have affected the relationships amongst some middle and top level managers adversely. The stress survives because the Balanced Score Card design aggravated strong differences amongst their views of upcoming future opportunities. Gaps and weaknesses in communication generate unwillingness and mistrust to change. While certain specific shortcomings and flaws could be exceptionally unique to the company studied, these results appear to reflect largely on the issues of the Balanced Score Card uses and its design. The second section of this research study builds up a research question on the basis of reviewing the literature on communication standing by the features of effectual communication of strategy. The third section then builds up another research question with a synopsis of the attributes of management control tools that successfully control strategy. The fourth section later illustrates the company’s Balanced Score Card and the research site. Then the fifth section discusses about the practices used to analyze and obtain the qualitative and archival interview data. This part also displays a theoretical model for describing the effectiveness of the Balanced Score Card. The following sixth section then derives an empirical model for the effectiveness of the Balanced Score Card and also addresses the raised research questions. Lastly, the final section of this study encapsulates the conclusions and also offers certain suggestion for future research. Literature Review The Balanced Score Card and Communication of the Strategy Kaplan and Norton (1996 c) states that, â€Å"by articulating the outcomes the organization desires as well as the drivers of those outcomes (by using the Balanced Score Card), senior executive can channel the energies, the abilities, and the specific knowledge held by people throughout the organisation towards achieving the business’s long-term goals.† Therefore, Kaplan and Norton (1996 c) claims that not merely just the Balanced Score Card exemplifies or helps to create organizational knowledge and strategy, however even the Balanced Score Card itself effectively communicates knowledge and strategy. Merchant (1989) contends that failure in communication is one of the main reasons for poor organizational performance. Because neither the organization’s strategy nor its knowledge succeeds or exists apart from its chief human actors, the capability to communicate effectively may itself be a basis of competitive benefit (Amit and Shoemaker 1990; Grant 1991; Schulze 1992; Daft and Lewin 1993; Tucker et al. 1996). If the Balanced Score Card does articulate the organizations strategy and knowledge in a better manner, then it could act as a foundation of competitive advantage, at-least until all other competitors implement it equally well. However, the organisational communiquà © literature recognizes an intricate set of features that influence the effectiveness or quality of communication in the organisations. Based upon a review of the present literature, an organisations communication system or device could be characterized with the elements of its (1) exchange and creation of knowledge, (2) support of the organisational culture, and (3) messages and processes. These communication characteristics have been briefly reviewed below: Exchange and Creation of Knowledge Knowledge, which could be a tactic or an objective, is the foundation of strategy implementation and formulation.3 Thus, an effectual system of communication holds up an organisations strategy by fostering both tactic and objective knowledge. An effective system 3 Objective knowledge is expressible and observable in the normal language – outcomes and production processes, for instance. However, unspoken language is understood and known but it is not easy to convey in language – an individual’s insights or experiences, for instance. This subsection draws greatly from Tucker et al. (1996). of communication exchanges the objectives (observable) of knowledge amongst the most important individuals so that everyone is aware of the organisations present status. Organisations construct objective knowledge from the integration and development of the new knowledge by individual experts. Objective knowledge generally derives itself from the sharing and refining of the individuals tactic knowledge, which is recognized but not yet usable or articulated by the organisation. Thus, a system of effective communication enables and encourages the individuals to share their experiences and also gathers those shared experiences. This may best possibly be accomplished by frequent and intense sharing, and might also be by dialogue rather than a one-dimensional reporting. Perhaps significantly for the effectiveness of the Balanced Score Card, de Haas and Kleingeld (1999) further debates that participating in the design of the performance measurement system is an essential element of an effective communication of strategy. Support of Values, Beliefs and Culture As per the traditional sight of an effective organisational communication, it supports individual interests and the organisational culture by focusing on certain desired patterns of beliefs, shared values, and behaviour. Effectual communication exhibits that the organisation accomplishes its promises and that group or individual rewards are predicted based upon their actions (Goodman 1998; Tucker et al. 1996). Communiquà © by leaders which steadily articulates shared values, beliefs and goals (Goodman 1998; Tucker et al. 1996) is also efficient in directing behaviour and reinforcing culture. Moreover, effectual communication ought to encourage behaviour coherent with organisational values, beliefs and goals (Goodman 1998). Kaplan and Norton (2000), the proponents of the Balanced Score Card, debates that it can also be a tool of strategic and cultural change. Coherent with Kotter’s (1995) study of change processes, the Balanced Score Card could facilitate change by effectively communicating and creating a convincing realistic vision of and also a method for attaining change. Communication Messages and Processes Individuals make use of and rely on communication only if its messages and processes are observed as trustworthy and understandable. Other features of effectual organisational communication procedures are reliability, predictability, completeness, and routineness (Tucker et al. 1996; Goodman 1998; Barker and Camarata 1998). Besides this, communication is also more successful if it applies well defined terms and concise messages (Goodman 1998). Moreover, effectual communications system prevents misrepresentation of performance or repression of truth. There should be no equivocation concerning the differences between â€Å"looking good† and truthfulness or coherence with winning. An effective system of communication and its operators will be indignant of â€Å"spin, deniability, and truth by assertion† (Goodman 1998). As a result, organisational communication shall be effectual if the messages and processes are a valid and convincing representation of the performance. In a nutshell, effectual organisational communication strategies should hold the recognizable attributes of: Knowledge sharing – including participation and dialogue Support and assistance of organisational culture – changing or existing Valid messages trustworthy, understandable and reliable The organisational communication literature foresees that a Balanced Score Card, which comprises of these above mentioned attributes, shall create positive organisational outcomes, positive motivation, and strategic alignment. The foremost research area shall be: Question 1: Is the Balanced Score Card an (in) effective device for communication, creating (negative) positive organisational outcomes, (in) effective motivation, and (non) alignment? The Balanced Score Card and The Management Control of The Strategy general condemnation of managing the organisations on the basis of financial performance measures is that these measures persuade the managers to make short-run, myopic decisions. The financial measures incline to emphasise on the present impacts of the decisions, lacking an obvious link between long run strategy and the short run actions (current criticisms include Luft and Shields [1999], McKenizie and Schilling [1998]). Moreover, the traditional financial performance measures could work in opposition to the knowledge based strategies by considering the enrichment of resources like human capital, which might be crucial to implementing a strategy, such as current expenses (e.g., Johnson 1992). Dixon et al (1990) debates that the time-honoured financial measures, by dispensing costs of many developments, as well work opposing to the strategies based on reduction of manufacturing time, flexibility and quality. For numerous lower level employees, most of the financial measures of performance are excessively comprehensive and also very far isolated from their actions to offer helpful feedback or guidance on their decisions. They may need certain measures that relate more accurately and directly to the outcomes that they can persuade. (McKenize and Schilling 1998). A numerous studies have found proof that the financial, traditional performance measures are utmost helpful in conditions of low complexity and relative uncertainty; and not in the conditions faced by many trans-national organisations today (e.g., Abernethy and Brownwell 1997; Govindarajan and Gupta 1985; Govindarajan 1984; Gordon and Naranyan 1984). Lynch and Cross (1995) debates that all set performance measures should motivate the behaviour contributing to constant improvement and development in certain vital areas of competition, such as productivity, flexibility, and customer satisfaction. Therefore, they should replicate a cause and effect amongst strategic outcomes and operational behaviour (Keegan et al. 1989; Ittner and Larcker 1998a).4 Moreover, as and how an organisation recognizes new strategic goals, it shall also comprehend a requirement for new measures of performance to persuade and supervise its new actions (Dixon et al. 1990). 4 Contemplation of the time lags might be really important for illustrating these cause and effect relationships (e.g., Norreklit 2000, Banker et al. 2000). Hence, organisations optimally and perhaps sensibly might implement a varied set of measures of performance to demonstrate the diversity of management efforts and decisions (e.g., Ittner and Larcker 1998b; Feltham and Xie 1994; Banker and Datar 1989; Homstrom 1979). The empirical evidences in support of these propositions is narrow and limited but growing.5 The Case of Management Control For The Balanced Score Card Kaplan and Norton (1996 b) had organized various measures of performance into the Balanced Score Card, which is itself a admissible expression in most of the Western business management models.6 Indeed, the Balanced Score Card might have diffused extensively throughout the globe on the power of its internal logic and intuition. Kaplan and Norton (1996b) asserts that the Balanced Score Card offers two noteworthy improvements over the traditional non financial or even the financial performance measures. Firstly, the Balanced Score Card discovers four associated fields of activity that might be crucial to almost all organisations and also to all levels inside the organisation: Increasing financial success Providing Customer value Improving the effectiveness of internal processes Investing in growth and learning capabilities Following the rationale of the Balanced Score Card and disregarding the cost benefit considerations, almost every organisation can implement measures in all the four areas to persuade and supervise actions suitable to organisational strategy. An appropriately constructed Balanced Score Card in its utmost basic use, can offer a complete picture of the status of an organisation, similar to a vehicle’s dashboard showing temperature, oil pressure, fuel levels, speed, engine RPM and coolant. 5 For instance, Banker et al. Offers empirical support with the help of widespread time series data in a service firm for the relations amongst lagging financial performance and principal non-financial measures. Moreover, they employ an event-learning method to locate beneficial performance results from incorporating these non-financial measures in the management performance assessments. 6 The advocates of EVA ® or economic value added, also assert improvements over the traditional financial performance measures, but that is also a synopsis of the financial measure, even though the one that rectifies for the claimed financial reporting faults and errors. EVA ® do not integrate the non-financial, complementary performance measures. Therefore, the Balanced Score Card could encourage positive and constructive organisational outcomes like improvements and developments in all the four areas of organisational activity, which comprises of administrative activities and the Balanced Score Card itself. Evaluating this first level of usefulness and effectiveness is the major objective of this study. Moreover, the Balanced Score Card also seeks to connect these measures into one model so as to accurately replicate the cause and effect relationship amongst the individual measures and the categories. Employing the automobile correspondence, the Balanced Score Card encourages a change in the car’s performance (e.g., speed) specified a designed increase in the engine RPM and fuel consumption (and maybe other factors). A model like this may back-up operational decisions, provide trustworthy feedback for performance evaluation and learning, and make forecasts of results given environmental conditions and the decisions.7 The Role of The Balanced Score Card for Performance Measurement and Strategy Implementation The proponents of the Balanced Score Card emphasise its alliance of the critical measures with the links and the strategy of the measures to the valued outcomes. Additionally, the literature on management control recognizes other features of the control systems that might be crucial for the successful operation and implementation of the strategy and shall apply to the Balanced Score Card.8 To be efficient and effective, Balanced Score Card measures ought to be verifiable, objective, and accurate. 7 Whereas the primary claim for value of the various performance measures would create few debates beyond the considerations of benefit and costs, the secondary claim is a rigorous and bold hypothesis. A potentially testable and literal explanation of the balanced score card is that, it explains lagging, leading, or contemporaneous relations amongst the performance measures. For instance, improvements in growth and learning like reduced time of cycle (e.g., Luft and Shields 1999). Similarly, progress in the in-house processes will predictably result in an enhanced customer value (e.g., market share and satisfaction). Lastly, progress in the customer value shall lead to some predictable increment in the financial success (e.g., profits). Generating such a coherent and comprehensive model is an inspirational objective which is similar to imitating the business model of the company itself. Achieving such an experiential result shall not establish any causality amongst the balanced score card elements because (1) factors absent from this model might be correlated alongwith both effects and causes, (2) the causes of earnings might not be generalizable further beyond the context of a particular firm (Norreklit 2000), and (3) few of the proposed measures might not be self-governing and independent. 8 Unless otherwise mentioned, this particular section draws from the summaries in Merchant (1989, Chapter 2) and Simon (2000, Chapter 11). If not, the measures shall be manipulated and will not be able to replicate the performance, or even the managers could in good belief attain good quality measured performance but in-turn cause harm to the organisation. Even if the managers can attain high measured performance by fraud, cheating or any other method, then the system shall lose its required motivational effect and credibility rapidly. Moreover, the combination of Balanced Score Card measures should entirely illustrate the organisations crucial performance variables; instead it should be restricted in number so as to maintain the measurement system administratively and cognitively simple. A comprehensive set of measures of performance shall accurately replicate the difficulty of the organisations tasks and responsibilities, but a lot of measures might be costly, confusing, and distracting to administer. Nevertheless, Lipe and Salterio (2000) failed to find confirmation of any information overload from the various measures used in their experimental study of the Balanced Score Card. Optimistic motivational impact persuades managers to put forth effort for achieving the organisational goals. While enlightening but not manageable the performance measures might be essential, optimistic motivation demands that in some way or the other few of the Balanced Score Card measures should replicate manager’s conduct and actions. For instance, relative performance assessment (e.g., across alike business units), which is capable of identifying â€Å"influenceable† however, not absolutely controllable results, can be an essential constituent of the Balanced Score Card (e.g., Antle and Demski 1988), but it shall not be adequate by itself. Widespread goal setting researchers validate that the performance should be correlated to demanding but achievable targets (e.g., Locke and Laltham 1990). Without such unequivocal Balanced Score Card targets, the performance would likely be comparatively lower than what could be realistically achieved. Finally to fabricate the goal commitments, the Balanced Score Card shall be linked to well understood and prompt penalties and rewards. Rewards which are ambiguous, uncertain, or delayed shall be unsuccessful motivational devices. Consequently, even if an organisation’s Balanced Score Card replicates its crucial performance variables and the links to valued and appreciated outcomes, it might be unproductive and disastrous as a successful management control tool if it lacks the other attributes. For instance, Ittner et al (2000) asserts that bias in a bank’s Balanced Score Card escorted it to both the bank’s deterioration to its interim financial measures of performance and little advantageous impact. To recapitulate, an effective and successful management control device, which is competent to promote required organisational results, shall have the subsequent, apparent management control elements to, firstly, achieve strategic alignment: A complete but economical combination of the measures of crucial performance variables, correlated with strategy; Crucial performance measures just casually correlated to valued organisational results; and Successful and effective – accurate, purpose, and confirmable – measures of performance, which seems to be associated to effectual communication. Secondly, to further encourage positive motivation, an efficient management control tool should have the attributes of: Measures of performance reflecting the managers influenceable actions or/and controllable actions, e.g., measured by relative or/and absolute performance; Appropriate standards or performance targets that are demanding but attainable; and Performance measures which are associated to meaningful and significant rewards. The Management control theory forecasts that, if the Balanced Score Card contains these attributes, then it becomes probable that the Balanced Score Card shall encourage positive outcomes and motivation and strategic alignment as well. Consequently, the secondary research area/question which complements the first is: Question 2: Is the Balanced Score Card an (in) effective device for management control, creating (negative) positive organisational outcomes, (in) effective motivation, and (non) alignment? Subsequent explanation unfolds the information of a model which replicates the two stated research questions. This model, supported and based on the review of all literature, demonstrates that the Balanced Score Card’s communication characteristics and management control generate results by creating motivation (or not) and strategic alignment. This research also explains about the labour and efforts put in for collecting the data on an applied Balanced Score Card’s organisational communication attributes and management control, along with the facts confirming the Balanced Score Card’s effects on organisational outcomes, motivation, and  strategic alignment. It is audacious to judge the efficiency and the efficacy of the Balanced Score Card against the facts from a non experimental, single Balanced Score Card implementation. Though, a careful and detailed assessment of a crucial case could be generalizable to the theory and instructive (i.e., analytical generalisation, Yin [1994, 10-32]), which in this particular case is that the Balanced Score Card could be an effective management control and strategy communication device. The Characteristics of Balanced Score Card and The Research Site Synopsis of The Research Site The research site is an Indian Economic Times 500 company having over 15000

Organizational behaviour theories

Organizational behaviour theories 1.0 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this essay is to discuss the statement â€Å"organizational behaviour theories and concepts are only useful for managers† with real world examples supporting the discussion. Organizations are not buildings or pieces of machinery. Organizations are, indeed, people who interact to accomplish shared objectives. The study of organizational behaviour (OB) and its affiliated subjects helps us understand what people think, feel and do in organizational settings. For managers and, realistically, all employees, this knowledge helps predict, understand and control organizational events. Organizational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organisations effectiveness (Robbins, Millett, Marsh, 2004). Though there is still considerable debate as to the components or topics of the area of OB, there appears to be general accord that OB includes the core topics of motivation, leader behaviour and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, emotions, change processes, conflicts, work design work stress. To sum up OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization and how that behaviour affects the performance of the organization. To achieve the purpose the essence of this essay strives to analyze the controversial and complex theories and concepts of organisational behaviour to discuss those theories and concepts useful for everyone or only managers of an organisation. 2.0 Role of the Manager 2.1. Who is a Manager? A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. The changing nature of organizations and work has altered the role of managers. 2.2. What do Managers Do Describing what managers do isnt an easy or simple task! Just as no two organizations are alike, no two managers jobs are alike. A managers job can be described from various perspectives: functions, roles, essential skills, systems, and contingencies. Each approach provides a different perspective on the managers job. Management is the process of coordinating work activities so theyre completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Effectiveness is concerned with completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things done and effectiveness is concerned with the ends. The process of management refers to the idea that management consists of a set of ongoing decisions and actions in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead, and control. Planning involves defining an organizations goals and establishing strategies and plans to achieve those goals. Organizing includes designing a structure to carry out the plans. Leading involves motivating subordinates, influencing individuals or teams, communicating effectively, and dealing with employee behaviour issues. Finally, controlling includes monitoring, comparing, and correcting the organizations performance. Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different roles or behaviours. He classified them into three sets. One set is concerned with interpersonal relationships (figurehead, leader, liaison). The second set is related to the transfer of information (monitor, disseminator, spokesperson). The third set deals with decision making (entre-preneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator). Robert Katz identified three skills managers need: technical, human, and conceptual. He showed that the relative importance of these skills varied according to the management level within the organization. The systems perspective can be used to describe what a manager does because organizations are open systems with interrelated and interdependent parts. Within this system, managers coordinate the various work activities so that the organization can meet its goals. The reality of work is that manager will either manage or be managed, and there are rewards and challenges in being a manager. 3.0 Organisational behaviour theories and concepts There are several crucial reasons why companies should utilize the concepts and theories of OB, as well as understand the key terms that are associated with organizational behaviour. One of the most important and broad-based challenges facing organizations today is adapting to diverse work environments. Organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, and ethnicity. For example, several key terms that must also be understood organizational culture, diversity, communication, organizational effectiveness and efficiency, organizational learning. 3.1. Attitudes Attitudes are evaluative statements either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says, I like my job, he or she is expressing an attitude about work. The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance:Cognitive dissonance theory sought to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. The theory argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals will try to reduce the dissonance and, thus, the discomfort. In other words, individuals seek stability with a minimum of dissonance. Self-Perception Theory: People decide on their own attitudes and feelings from watching themselves behave in various situations. (Straker, c Syque 2002-2009) Usefulness of Attitudes Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Effective managers need to understand behaviours and attitudes of employees. Therefore knowing above theories Managers can pressure to reduce the dissonance when employees recognize that the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable. The pressure is also decreased if rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. So the manager may point to external forces such as competitors, customers, or other factors when explaining the need to perform some work activity about which workers may have some dissonance. Or the manager can provide rewards that workers desire in order to decrease their attempts to get rid of the dissonance. Another implication for managers is that there is relatively strong proof that committed and satisfied employees have low rates of turnover and absenteeism. Knowing that managers would like to keep resignations and absences down, mostly among their most productive employees. Managers can do those things by generating positive job attitudes. Measuring employee satisfaction through attitude surveys can alert managers to any significant changes. The manager who knows about the above theories can reduce absenteeism and turnover by using those theories and concepts. Employees who know attitude theories and concepts try to reduce dissonance and decide on their attitudes and feelings which lead them to the successful job performance. Then furthermore successful job performance should lead to feelings of accomplishment, increased pay, promotions, and other rewards, all desirable outcomes that then lead to job satisfaction of employees. 3.2. Personality The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, measurable traits a person exhibits. There are dozens of personality traits could use; for instance, aggressive, shy, ambitious, loyal, and lazy. The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions: The big-five personality traits are; Extraversion: The degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive. Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. Emotional stability: The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). Openness to experience: The degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Personality-Job Fit Theory (Holland): Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover. The six basic personality types of work environments are; Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Usefulness of Personality Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. For managers the major value in understanding personality differences probably lies in employee selection. Managers are likely to have higher performing and more satisfied employees if consideration is given to matching personalities with jobs. The best-documented personality job fit theory has been developed by psychologist John Holland. His theory states that an employees satisfaction with his or her job, as well as his or her likelihood of leaving that job, depends on the degree to which the individuals personality matches the occupational environment. Furthermore it illustrates satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are compatible. Therefore its valuable for managers to know about personality theories and concepts. Also being a successful manager and accomplishing goals means working well together with others both inside and outside the organization. In order to work effectively together, managers need to understand each other. This understanding comes, at least in part, from recognizing the ways in which people differ from each other that is, from an appreciation of personality traits. In addition, there are other benefits to a managers understanding of personality. By recognizing that people approach problem solving, decision making, and job interactions differently, a manager can better understand why, for instance, an employee is uncomfortable with making quick decisions or why another employee insists on gathering as much information as possible before addressing a problem. Or, for instance, managers can expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be less satisfied with their jobs than internals and also that they may be less willing to accept responsibility for their actions. People who choose to work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied. For that reason knowing personality theories and concepts person can select a job that fit for him or her. For example, Artistic persons are more likely to be successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an Artistic environment, like choosing to be a dance teacher in a dancing school an environment dominated by Artistic type people where creative abilities and expression are highly valued. Moreover knowing those theories help employees to work with their office mates/staff with an understanding. 3.3. Learning Learning occurs all the time as we continuously learn from our experiences. It can define as any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Classical conditioning: A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they dont want. Operant behaviour describes voluntary or learned behaviour in contrast to reflexive or unlearned behaviour. The tendency to repeat learned behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement that happens as a result of the behaviour. Social-learning theory: Individuals also can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by being told about something as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of what we have learned comes from watching others (models)—parents, teachers, peers, television and movie actors, managers, and so forth. This view that we can learn both through observation and direct experience is called social learning theory. Shaping behaviour theory: Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Usefulness of Learning Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Employees are going to learn on the job. The only issue is whether managers are going to manage their learning through the rewards they allocate and the examples they set or allow it to occur unsystematically. If marginal employees are rewarded with pay raises and promotions, they will have little reason to change their behaviour. In fact, productive employees, seeing that marginal performance gets rewarded, might change their behaviour. According to it managers can use learning theories and concepts to motivate employees to do thing as wanted. 3.4. Perception Decision Making Perception is a process by which individuals give meaning to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions. Attribution Theory: Attribution theory was developed to explain how we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individuals behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviours are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally caused behaviour results from outside factors; that is, the person is forced into the behaviour by the situation. That determination, however, depends on three factors: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Decision making is an integral function of management. Decision making involves selecting or choosing a particular course of action from among the various alternatives available in the decision making situation. Rational Decision-Making Model: A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximise some outcome. Step 1. Define the Problem Step 2. Identify the Decision Criteria Step 3. Weight the Criteria Step 4. Generate Alternatives Step 5. Rate Each Alternative on Each Criteria Step 6. Compute Optimal Decision Usefulness of Perception Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Managers need to recognize that their employees react to perceptions, not to reality. So whether a managers appraisal of an employee is actually objective and unbiased or whether the organizations wage levels are among the highest in the community is less relevant than what employees perceive them to be. Employees organize and interpret what they see, so there is always the potential for perceptual distortion. The message to managers should be clear: Pay close attention to how employees perceive both their jobs and management actions. Since the valuable employee who quits because of an inaccurate perception is just as great a loss to an organization as the valuable employee who quits for a valid reason. In addition, job satisfaction also influences organizational behavior, primarily through perceptions of fairness. That means â€Å"If employees dont feel that their supervisors or the organizations procedures or pay policies are fair, their job satisfaction is likely to suffer significantly. However, when employees perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be fair, trust is developed. And when employees trust their employer, theyre more willing to voluntarily engage in behaviors that go beyond the formal job requirements†. Usefulness of Decision Making Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Studies show that managers may spend up to 70 percent of their time in group meetings. Undoubtedly, a large portion of that time is spent formulating problems, developing solutions, and determining how to implement the solutions.Therefore it proved knowing decision making theories and concepts is useful for as individually managers. It helps to make decisions in order to gain maximum productivity. 3.5. Motivation Motivation is the process that account for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. In todays world motivation is seen as being best achieved by a combination of elements within the organization that combine to produce it: needs; job design; satisfaction. There are many theories of motivation that have emerged in organizational behaviour literature. Early Theories of Motivation Hierarchy of needs theory: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a hierarchy. Maslows Hierarchy of needs (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009) Individuals cant move to the next higher level until all needs at the current level are satisfied. So they have to move up the hierarchy in order. Theory X Y: Very simply, Theory X presents an essentially negative view of people and Theory Y offers a positive view. Two-factor theory: motivation-hygiene theory proposes that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. McClellands Theory of Needs: McClelland proposed that an individuals specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by ones early life experiences. Theory focuses onpeople havingthree fundamental needs that exist in different degrees, one being a stronger preference:- The need for achievement The need for affiliation The need for power (authority) A persons motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs because they have different level of needs in each of these areas. (Edwards, 2009.) Goal setting Theory: Conscious goals affect action. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example -: to attain a specific standard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit. As industrial-organizational psychologists, our primary interest has been to predict, explain, and influence performance on organizational or work-related tasks. Thus, we focused on the relationship between conscious performance goals and level of task performance rather than on discrete intentions to take specific actions. Reinforcement Theory: In contrast to goal-setting theory, reinforcement theory says that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Goal-setting theory proposes that an individuals purpose directs his or her behaviour. Reinforcement theory argues that behaviour is externally caused. What controls behaviour are reinforcers, consequences that, when given immediately following a behaviour, increase the probability that the behaviour will be repeated. The key to reinforcement theory is that it ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs. Instead, it focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action. Expectancy Theory: Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationships Equity Theory: This is a process theory that focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others. The 4 most common ways to reduce a perceived inequity are to, Change inputs. Change outcomes. Distort perceptions. Leave the job. Usefulness of Motivation Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Managers can recognize individual differences by using above theories as almost every contemporary motivation theory recognizes that employees arent identical. They have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other important individual variables. Also managers can match people to jobs. Theres a great deal of evidence showing the motivational benefits of carefully matching people to jobs. For example, high achievers should have jobs that allow them to participate in setting moderately challenging goals and that involve autonomy and feedback. Also keep in mind that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in autonomy, variety, and responsibility. Employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcer for one may not for another. Managers should use their knowledge about theories and concepts of motivation to motivate employee using different reward systems. Ex-: Individualize the rewards they control, such as pay, promotions, recognition, desirable work assignments, autonomy, and participation. Link rewards to performance. Allocation of performance-based wage increases Piecework bonuses Pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation. So as mentioned above managers can induce employees to achieve organizational goals through knowledge of motivational theories and concepts 3.6. Leadership The aspect of leadership is perhaps one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. Leadership is a special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to do what the leader wants done (Wood, Wallance, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2001). Trait Theories: Trait theories are more traditional and focus on the personal traits of leaders from those of followers. Six traits associated with effective leadership included; ambition and energy the desire to lead honesty and integrity self-confidence intelligence job relevant knowledge Traits alone were not sufficient for explaining effective leadership. Explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders and their group members as well as situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. Behavioural Theories: Behavioral therapists take a different approach. Behavioralists try to determine the types of leadership behaviors that have produced a higher level of work performance. There are four main leader behaviour studies we need to look at. Managerial Grid Concern for people: measured leaders concern for subordinates on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Concern for production: measured leaders concern for getting job done on a scale of 1 to 9 (low to high) Contingency Theory: In this section we examine five contingency theories. Each looks at defining leadership style and the situation and attempts to answer the if-then contingencies (i.e., if this is my situation, then this is the best leadership style for me to use) The Fiedler Model the Fiedler contingency model proposed that effective group performance depended on the proper match between the leaders style of interacting with his or her followers and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence. The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The key was to define those leadership styles and the different types of situations and then to identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation. Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individuals basic leadership style. He further suggested that a persons style was one of two types: task oriented or relationship oriented. To measure a leaders style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire. This questionnaire contained 16 pairs of contrasting adjectives. After an individuals basic leadership style had been assessed through the LPC, it was necessary to evaluate the situation in order to match the leader with the situation. Fiedlers research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors for determining leader effectiveness. These were: Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader; rated as either good or poor Task structure: the degree to which job assignments were formalized and procedurized; rated as either high or low Position power: the degree of influence a leader had over power-based activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases; rated as either strong or weak Each leadership situation was evaluated in terms of these three contingency variables. Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory focuses on followers readiness. SLT says if followers are; Telling (high task-low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks. Selling (high task-high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior. Participating (low task-high relationship): The leader and follower share in decision making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. Delegating (low task-low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support. Leader Participation Model related leadership behaviour and participation in decision making. The model argued that leader behaviour must adjust to reflect the task structure whether it was routine, nonroutine, or anywhere in between. Leadership Styles in the Vroom Leader Participation Model are; Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and either announces or sells it to group. Consult Individually: Leader presents the problem to group members individually, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Consult Group: Leader presents the probelm to group members in a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Facilitate: Leader presents the problem to the group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator, defines the problem and the boundaries within which a decision must be made. Delegate: Leader permits the group to make the decision within prescribed limits. Path-Goal Model which states that its the leaders job to assist his or her followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. House identified four leadership behaviors: Directive leader: lets subordinates know whats expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks Supportive leader: is friendly and shows concern for the needs of followers Participative leader: consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision Achievement-oriented leader: sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level Path goal theory Leader-Member Exchange Theory indicates that leaders develop special relationships with trusted followers. Usefulness of Leadership Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. Leadership may not always be important but the aspect of leadership is conceivably one of the most influential elements in organizational behavior. This is because the leaders are expected to direct the company in such a way as to maximize corporate objectives while minimizing costs. In perhaps more than any other area of organizational behavior the leadership aspect is a combination of learning theories, power, personality, performance appraisal and motivation. This is because leadership is the process whereby an individual must gain the voluntary participation of subordinates with the goal of attaining corporate objectives. Thus, a leaders personality and sense of power will influence this process. Further, motivation is a key aspect of leadership because goal will not be attained if subordinates are not properly motivated to achieve them and performance appraisal is a key element in this process. Without adequate feedback that is quantifiable, leaders will not be able to assess em ployee performance reliably or measure progress in attaining corporate objectives. So its important to have knowledge of leadership concepts and theories to both employees and managers to achieve organizational goals. 3.7. Groups A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals. Groups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups are work groups established by the organization that have designated work assignments and specific tasks. In formal groups, appropriate behaviours are established by and directed toward organizational goals. Five stage Group Development Model Forming stage: The first stage in group development characterised by much uncertainty. Storming stage: The second stage in group development characterised by intra-group conflict. Norming stage: The third stage in group development, characterised by close relationships and cohesiveness. Performing stage: The fourth stage development, when the group is fully functional. Adjourning stage: The final stage in group development for temporary groups characterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. Group Behaviour Model Group behaviour emanates from the causes that contribute to the groups effectiveness. Usefulness of Group Theories Concepts for Managers and Employees. The group task is a whole and meaningful piece of work, with a visible outcome. According to