James Baldwin

Language is a very controversial topic. The way many people hear language and judge others based upon it differs from place to place. Personally, I completely agree with James Baldwin. In his defense, language is what the general population uses to stereotype, it leaves us identifying each another, and language also can cause social exclusion. First off, language is widely used to stereotype others. One can judge others based on their accent, choice of words, or grammar. For instance, during James Baldwin’s time a Man with a sophisticated British accent was seen as an educated man with a decent income. Language also allows people to stereotype people based on where they come from. For example, people with bad grammar and used words such as â€Å"ain’t† or â€Å"y’all† typically are from the southern area of the United States. Next, people identify others personality based on word choice and grammar. George Bush, one of our very own U. S. residents, had a southern accent, and had he not been president, people would have most likely negatively identified him. They would assume he is a dumb, ignorant southerner because of his views. However, sharing his views as the president allowed him to be respected with the views either way, while some people disagreed with him, many saw him as a leader which would be very different had he been your average joe. Last but not least, language can lead to social exclusion. Because of poor language on someone’s part, others can exclude them. People can be excluded because of bad language that makes them sound dumb, or even language that makes them sound too smart like a know-it-all. Similarities in language create cliques among people and it is very easy to be shunned out of these cliques if one is noticeably different. To recapitulate, language is the cause of many stereotypes and differences in society. Language can be used to stereotype, or it can be used to identify others. Also, it can lead to social exclusion because of differences in language. All in all, language is a huge contributing factor to society

India Shining Essay

It has been projected that by the year 2020, 62% of India’s population will be between the age group of 15 and 59 years. This is what is known as India’s demographic dividend. This means that while the average age of citizens in other countries is on the rise, a majority of India’s population will be in the employable age group. The question that arises here and one that has been on the minds of many Indians is; does the demographic dividend contain in it a ticking time bomb or will we be able to use this as an opportunity to realize our dream of India Shining? There has been a lot of talk about the opportunity divide in India. This Opportunity Divide is that by the year 2022, 800 million people will be in the working age group but out of these only 200 million will be graduates while the remaining will be in the unskilled group. According to research done by NSDC, between the year 2008 and 2022, 347 million jobs will be created across 22 different high growth sectors in India. For example, the jobs available in the construction industry will be about 33 million, in the auto industry about 35 million, in infrastructure 103 million and in retail about 14 million jobs will be available. The interesting fact here is that India will have both the jobs as well as a matching demographic of population that will have the potential to carry out these jobs. The question is will we be able to train so many people? The Indian government has set a target of training 500 million people by the year 2022, but is this target achievable? The target definitely is a daunting number. As an Indian I do hope that this dream is realized and am proud to be working for an organization that has done some exemplary work in this field. Pratham Institute has trained over 70,000 people through its various vocational training programs and is in the process of training more. I hope that people who come across this blog also find a way to contribute towards India’s future. Maybe then we’ll have the answer to the question raised by the title of this blog.

Identification of Team background and Evaluation of its performance Assignment

Identification of Team background and Evaluation of its performance - Assignment Example This research will begin with the statement that the team to be evaluated is a professional team that appointed to ensure the prolongation of a certain audit firm, P&H, by choosing the best alternative among the many options that do not lead to an adverse effect in terms of operations. P&H boasts of a strong team of auditors that have played a big role in its success. The firm is composed of ten members with higher qualifications and credentials in different various fields of finance and management. P&H team is a traditional team that has been committed to ensuring that the firm delivers high-quality work to her clients and employs competent audit assistance and other audit technicians. The team that includes different heads of departments sharing similar goals of the firm believes that performance of every member is crucial for P&H success. Many differences that were initially experienced in the team have been resolved and different departmental heads appreciate their colleaguesâ₠¬â„¢ contribution. Team members understand each other and interact with humor, a concept that helps them provide a solution and constructive feedback. Team members are committed to the team goal thus producing great results. Team members engage in the collective and democratic decision-making process through consulting group members hence promoting workers ownership for the decisions without the team leader losing sight of the fact that he bears all the crucial responsibility of leadership.

What is Democracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

What is Democracy - Essay Example This paper will examine the role of democracy in fostering equality, creating the concept of ‘the greater good’, its values of sovereignty and fostering good interpersonal relationships as well as its values of liberty. Democracy is all about representation and giving the people a voice (Brodie et al., 2014 pg 31-45). This was evident in the direct democracy system that was used in ancient Greece, where all people had a voice and participated in the decision-making process, which became the principle within democracy (Brodie et al., 2014 pg 31-45). In practice, all citizens had the ability to influence the direction of policies adopted by the state via the voting process (Brodie et al., 2014 pg 31-45). However, the huge population in contemporary times means that such as model would not be reasonable because the process would be too lengthy to respond to urgent matters. Instead, an indirect model has been adopted, one where a select group of people make the decisions for the rest of the population (Brodie et al., 2014, 2-15). Therefore, the role of the policy-making bodies in contemporary times, in accordance with the existing democratic principles, is to make policies that benefit the people who v oted for those in government (Brodie et al., 2014, 2-15). From this assumption, it follows that policies should be evaluated by their ability to reflect the needs of the citizens in the country (Brodie et al., 2014, 2-15). For example, in present day America, Americans put pressure on the government to recall troops from war-torn areas if the presence of these troops in battles is not in the best interests of citizens. Therefore, the best democratic practices have to allow citizens to make changes while also simplifying life as much as possible. The concept of the greater good, as a democratic principle, examines the role of elected leaders to fulfill the wish of their voters (Brodie et al., 2014, pg

Business Decision Making - Investigating the Leisure Industries Assignment

Business Decision Making - Investigating the Leisure Industries - Assignment Example re the main six sort of division of the Heuristics: the recognition heuristic, the minimalist strategies, the lexicographic strategy, take the last strategy, sequential decision making, and elimination by aspect. Goodwin & Wright (2014) assert that heuristic is used for multiple making decisions that involve several or multiple objectives. For an instant, in this case a choice is to be made in picking two alternatives which are either to choose Egypt or Edinburg. Goldstein & Gigerenzer (2002) argues that recognition heuristic is the simplest of all the heuristics hence can be introduced as fast and frugal in this particular program. This is due to the fact that individuals tend to have good recognition memory. In this type of heuristic, when an individual perceives one of two things, he or she will judge the perceived thing to be more prominent in whatever measurements associated with recognition. Oppenheimer (2003) argues that the size of the city is positively associated with recognition hence through the recognition heuristic, it will predict that the recognized cities will be judged as larger in comparison with the cities that are not recognized. This type of heuristic is useful in settling on choice rapidly though it gives an illusion of a good choice by excluding other opportunities such as prior hypothesis. For an instant, some individuals may choose the most visited countries and cheap countries while other may opt for either Egypt or Edinburg due to safety and security reasons. Miao & Mattila (2007) illuminates that information results in confidence in making judgment in reference to the price of the consumers and their decisions. The Smart technique is based on a model that is additive linearly. It implies that the overall of an alternative is calculated as the total sum of the performance score of every criterion multiplied with that criterion’s weight (DTU Transport, 2014). Goodwin & Wright (2014) explain that the application of SMART is

Indigenous Education in Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Indigenous Education in Australia - Essay Example 1993). As an effect of broad community conversation and research, the Northern Territory Correctional Services (NTCS) in Australia documented that the wants of together the illegal and the community could be the majority outstanding addressed during an integrated approach to meddling and training delivery. Furthermore, during ending offending our message was the resultant proposal and it was officially launched in September 1999 (Heath, A.F. and Ridge, J. 2003, 169-84). This project focuses on as long as skills that are the majority suitable to the location and lifestyle of the person. The policy requires an ongoing dialogue among the program facilitator, training supplier, the member and his or her home community. No doubt, such education provides a focus for interference that range from matter abuse to community preservation. There are no additional education based institutions that provide the framework for training delivery, community involvement and participation (Harkness, S. 2005, 1 -36). Comparable training programs delivered within the custodial context are characterized by compartmentalization and limited opportunities for evolution. This program is designed to accommodate the changing needs of individual participants as well as the needs and expectations of the community. Sales of artwork and music generate an income that is given to the Victims of Crime Assistance League in line with the agency commitment to provide reparation (Daly, P. 2004). extra than 250 male as well as female inmates in Darwin in addition to Alice Springs correctional centers at present are concerned in this program, on behalf of 25 percent of the total prison inhabitants in the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia. Moreover, participants are creating stories, paintings, songs and music CDs that speak to alcohol and drug use and criminal. This product is marketplace via the Web site. The content of much of the music and artwork reflects the choices made by offenders prior to imprisonment, the effect of their crimes on victims and the realities of prison life. all through this "world first" proposal, participants undertake countrywide attributed Vocational Education plus Training (VET) in areas such as literacy, music and art manufacturing skills, computing, woodwork and trades (Heath, A.F. and McMahon, D. 2005). Participants are enrolled in countrywide accredited modules and units from the subsequent courses: arts and crafts, entry-level music manufac turing skills, general building, broad education, preliminary vocational education, and access to employment and additional study, and national workplace skills (Cheng, Y. and Heath, A.F. 2003 , 151-66). Foremost factors linked with offending and recidivism in the NT are limited employment prospects, low education levels and unsafe levels of drug use. Collaboration among the Prisoner Education Unit and the Alcohol and Other Drugs Unit ensures that the interference addresses offending behavior and, at the similar time, delivers exact VET learning result and competencies. Alcohol-related offenses account for approximately 70 percent of all

Political science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Political science - Essay Example The U.S. victory can be attributed to their decisive plans for naval control on the western pacific wing during the World War II. This operation was carried out with little knowledge of modern operational ideas. It is for this reason that both sides experienced tactical shortcomings that halted the entire mission and objective of the operation. This paper shall analyze the battle for Leyte Gulf with its main focus on the principles and art of military operation by the U.S. and Japan. In this regard the paper will focus on command decisions by the U.S. and Japanese naval commanders with a view of coming up with modern principles that can be applied in future operations. Principles of operation The success of any warfare mission depends solely on the ability of the commander to identify the aim, decipher the strategic factors of his operation, select and organize his forces and design a plan to achieve the objective of the operation. Normally, the commander’s role involves integ ration and coordination of an operation in a way as to inflict shock, disrupt and defeat the enemy. This is possible when the entire operation injects force on a totally different measure. In so doing, the commander ought to choose the correct course of action as dictated by ground factors by selecting factors pertinent to operations guided by the philosophy of operational art. The planning, synchronization and the conduct of operational functions have some impacts on the belligerents. This paper intends to discuss the aftereffects of the operational functions of the military in relation to planning, synchronization and execution. To achieve this aim, the impacts of the operational functions to belligerents in the Leyte Gulf operation will be discussed. The Leyte Gulf operation, also termed as the battles for Leyte Gulf, was a battle that occurred during the Second World War, from the 23rd to the 25th of October 1944. It aimed at the liberation of Philippines. Allied forces of the U .S.A and Australia and the Imperial Japanese Navy were the protagonists in the battle (Adamsky, 2010). The battle started with the invasion of Leyte’s island by the ground forces of the allied forces led by general Douglas Mac Arthur. The Japanese fleet took up the battle to defeat the invasion, but got defeated by the U.S. seventh fleet led by Vice Admiral Thomas Kinkaid and the fleet led by Admiral William. The battle got divided into four engagements which were the battle of Samar, the battle of cape Engano, the battle of Surigao strait, and the battle of the Sibuyan Sea. Preparation and Planning The main objective of the operation was to capture Leyte Gulf. The U.S. naval forces approached the attack using two axes, one under the leadership of Admiral Nimitz. This was designed to advance its operations towards a westerly strategic axis with the sole purpose of capturing the Marianas, Palau, Gilbert and Marshall Islands. The second set of forces, the southwest pacific forc es, under the command of General Douglas followed a northwesterly tactical axis all the way through Guinea and Morotai. The two axes were expected to intersect at Leyte. According to the leading commanders, the intersection would act as a stepping stone for effective takeover of Philippines. This was a strategic move in the heart of the operation as this was designed to cut off communication of Japanese sea lines disadvantaging their retaliation. In

Archaeology Think-Piece Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Archaeology Think-Piece - Essay Example main objective of archaeology is to study the human past and finding out how it affects and connects with the present and the feature of human being. As indicated above, archaeologists seek to learn and understand more about societies in the past and how human race developed from the earliest simple form of life. In doing this they employ various methodologies in order to ensure that their findings are very accurate, reliable and applicable in the present and future life of human being. Remote sensing is a method used to locate an archaeological site where artifacts could be excavated. This approach is used mostly when archaeological site is located in a small area within a huge area. Remote sensing may be applied together with field survey. An archaeologist may choose to begin with field survey, which involves systematically locating an unknown site in an area, or continue with the project from the remote sensing method. Features such as stone patterns resembling a house are located for study and analysis. Field survey method is the most preferred to others since it is expeditious and relatively cheap. It is detailed and hence m ore reliable (Down, David, 47). Once the archaeologist identifies and artifact or a piece of ancient architecture, it is excavated for the study. Analysis methodology, which entails proper and detailed study, is applied. Though it is time and resources consuming, it is important to obtain fine details which could shape the future of human race. During analysis, a cleaned artifact is dated, catalogued and a comparison is made with other, if any, published collection. It is then classified and its features taken in present day context. The final step in archaeology involves publishing of the new findings and making them available as historical facts (Down, David,

Written case study analysis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Written analysis - Case Study Example there were a lot of mothers who killed their children since their biological father was a Tutsi and there were many more people who killed their relative just because they were of the Tutsi community (Reed, 2014). The deaths of thousand of Tutsi and Hutu community member were a major drawback that occurred during the genocide. The militia killed women and children mercilessly for no reason during the genocide. For Kagame to fully support the reconciliation campaign I would strictly adhere to his beliefs and philosophies in order to gain his support while at the same time sensitizing him to be less ethnic-based and biased. The president, Paul Kagame, is believed to be an economist due to this fact, I would present the economic statistics of a united country compared to the economic statistics of an unstable country like the present day Sudan to portray the need for reconciliation and the economic benefits it would have on his country. The pitch would contain a detailed and well laid out presentation of the statistics and the economical possibilities that would, in no doubt, be guaranteed if he accepted to fund the campaigns. The use of visual charts and diagrams would be of great importance in laying out the data and statistics for easier understanding of the economic comparisons between a stable and unstable country. I would empathize on the effects the genocide caused on the people, by clearly demonstrating the effects the genocide had to all the communities in Rwanda including his own ethnic community will have triggered his soft and caring self thereby persuading him to fund the reconciliation campaigns. As an antagonistic journalist and a reconciler, I would greatly emphasize on the need of peace talk that would facilitate the reconciliation process. I would greatly emphasize on the president, Paul Kagame, the need of a peaceful country and the productivity it brings to the economy to have a united people to govern. I would emphasize on the need of a

Successor in family Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9250 words

Successor in family - Article Example This could be answered using an empirical research designed to involve business owner-managers and successors from some Chinese family businesses. These respondents could then be asked to help return usable questionnaires. The perceived success of the succession process is measured by two underlying dimensions: The empirical results will indicate whether the successor-related factors that influence satisfaction with the process are, on the one hand, the willingness of the successor to take over, and the relationship between the owner-manager and successor, on the other hand. The study should also be able to elucidate whether the continued profitability of the business is influenced by the willingness of the successor to take over the business, the preparation level of the successor, and the relationship between the successor and owner-manager. The relationship between the owner-manager and successor is influenced by the extent to which interpersonal relationships in the family can be described as harmonious. Based on these findings recommendations for successful succession are offered. When man began to venture into trade and commerce, little did it strike him that business was a means of being together and a factor that contributed to happiness and growth. Gradually members of a family would get together and share responsibilities to ease the workload on a single person. The most influential person of the family would normally be the business head. Family businesses are among the most important contributors to wealth and employment in virtually every country in the world, and this was no exception with the Chinese (IFERA, 2003; Sharma, 1997; Tan & Fock, 2001; Ward, 2004). So influential is family business, that many countries now have more and more family businesses contributing to the national economy through tax payments. What does one mean by the term family business' Following Chua, Sharma, and Chrisman (1996), family business is the business governed and/or managed on a sustainable, and potentially cross-generational, basis that shapes and perhaps pursues the formal or implicit vision of the business held by members of the same family or a small number of

Queen Nefertari Essay Example for Free

Queen Nefertari Essay Queen Nefertari was the wife of Ramses II- the longest ruling pharaoh who reigned in the 19th Dynasty (1295-1255 B. C. ) which was from the 13th to 14th century and he continued to rule on on for seventy years. She married Ramses at the age of thirteen. Nefertari was also one of his many and favorite wives. She produced as many as ten children for Ramses among them two sons named Amonhirwonmef, Prehirwonmef, and two daughters named Merytamon and Mertatum. Her birth parents remain a mystery but it is determined that she is of royal heritage. Nefertari had a brother by the name of Amenmose who was the mayor of Thebes during her rule as queen. She was of high importance and because most portraits or pictures painted by ancient Egyptians are with Ramses II, this may mean she might’ve had a major political influence on Egypt. Queen Nefertari was not the only queen present during the rule of Ramses II, he had a household filled with many queens. His children were estimated at one hundred or more. Nefertari’s disappearance still is considered as a mystery although her tomb has been found and remains a precious treasure to Egypt. It is located in The Valley of the Queens. Ramses referred to Queen Nefertari as the â€Å"most beautiful one† which is one of her many names she is known by. Nefertari Mery-en-Mut name meant â€Å"most beautiful beloved of the goddess Mut. † Her full range of titles were â€Å"Great of praise†, â€Å"Sweet of love†, â€Å"Great royal wife†, â€Å"Lady of charm†, â€Å"Great royal wife, his beloved†, â€Å"Lady of the two lands†, â€Å"Lady of all lands†, â€Å"Wife of strong bull†, â€Å"God’s wife†, â€Å"Lady of upper and lower Egypt. Ramses also referred to his wife as â€Å"The one for whom the sun shines. † Nefertari married Ramses at the tender age of thirteen. Although very young she held the responsibility of being queen very well, going even as far as accompanying Ramses on one or two of his battles. It is said that Nefertari is of royal heritage, but her birth parents remain a mystery. Some Egyptologists think that she was probably the daughter of King Seti I, and thus sister or half sister of Ramses II himself. Other Egyptologists, however, think that her designation as â€Å"Hereditary Princess† might be in some way connected with her being representative of Thebais. The tomb of Queen Nefertari was discovered in 1904 and forbidden to take pictures of. More than 50 tombs mention her name. Nefertari out lived her husband by a number of years which her mummy indicates sh died around 70 years of age. She passed away sometime during Ramses 25 reigned year. After her death Isetnofret became his new principal wife. Queen Nefertari became royal at the age of thirteen and since then she has always been known for that and her beauty.

The Differences of Education between China and America

The Differences of Education between China and America After the human society has formed, a great enterprise was born. Different regions and cultures made different ways of education. Besides, competition has launched on a global scale. International competition is actually the competition of intelligence and talents which need education to boost. China and America have the extremely influence to the international society, and they have received the universal attention. China has had significant change since the founding of the nation in all respects. As well, America also has changed enormously since 1949 to 2010. With this background, many countries are trying on introspection of education, cross adoption and fusion. We can hardly ask ourselves that: can our current education system go along with the increasingly  fierce  international  competition. What actually the differences of education between China and America are? The people are well educated not only by teacher but also by parents. Chinese education and American educati on have their own strong points. Apparently, the paper doesnt mean to deny American education or Chinese education. Through the comparison, this paper puts forward some implications that suit for Chinese education. Nowadays the society is developing fast. Comparing between different countries can make us have a clear opinion about what we should improve. It is essential for our Chinese to adopt some good education methods from other countries. It helps to educate our child to be a person with high IQ and EQ. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚  The Definition of Education Education is the entire process which raise newborn generation prepares to be engaged in social life, and is also the key link which the experience of human can be inherited and developed; mainly refer to the raising process of children of school age and the youth. Broadly, everything that promotes peoples knowledge and the skill, affects peoples personal character can be called education. In a limited sense, education refers chiefly to school education whose meaning is that the educator exerts their influence on body and mind of the educated to train them into the people which a certain society needs. The basis problems of education are what kinds of talents we should raise and how to do. On this fundamental issue, different education value cause different training aim and different teaching mode. China and Americas education values are different. In the raising of humans specific request, there also exist big differences. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¡ The Causes of Educations Differences between China and America Why these two kinds of education have so many differences? To sum up, the causes of different education are: 2.1The Different History Backgrounds It is known that American is an emigrant country whose people mostly come from Europe, just like a big melting pot with a short history and has less old culture. It is affected by multi-value and multi-culture. So compared with Chinese people, they own more adventure spirit and creation sprits. However, China had a long history which can be traced back to 5000 years ago. At the same time, it is bounded by much old culture and affected by feudal farmers idea. Its culture value is conservative. Chinese people are educated to be fictile followers, and lack of an environment to get new ideas on the whole. 2.2 The Different Economic Patterns American commodity economy is highly developed and the productive force is advanced. One can get jobs in many ways. The pressures of living are smaller than Chinese. In China, there are many kinds of jobs for Americans to choose. In Americans opinions, anyone can get others respect, no matter what his job is. Besides, commodity economy is changing all the time; jobs are changing at the same time. By contrast, China is a developing country. The pressure of living is great. One person may do only one job in his whole life, so Chinese always put all their happiness on a job. They think having a stable job is fortunate. 2.3 The Different Traditional Cultures The different traditional culture is the main reason for differences in education between China and America. Chinese emphasis the team sprit and comprehensive abilities of a child, they attach more attention to the behavior of normalization and self condition, they against the independent consciousness, the parents tell their children that they should take part in the group to adapt the society. In America culture, they emphasis people foremost and attach weight to individual potential and creativity. Chinese pay more attention to general character while Americans attach attention to personality. In chinas traditional culture ¼Ã…’the first educator is parent. The Chinese parents regard their children as their own private property. Therefore, the parents have a high opinion of shaping the childs personality, affects the childs personal construction. They pay attention to their own dream, has neglected the childs habit and happiness, so it lead the child to be in the passive situation, ignore the childs individual existence. Whereas, the American civilization takes the child as the main subject, think highly of individual, emphasizes equality, and respects the individual right. The western parents regard the child as an equal member in the family not a child, have the right to offer suggestion, respect the childs personality and dignity, they let the child think freely and choose independently. They respect the childs self-respect and advocate childs instinct development. In America education, the parents are not just childs parents, but his friends.   2.4 Different Ways of Thinking à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ Americans encourage rationalism while Chinese encourage affection. America education praise rationalism highly. Most of American parents consider the responsibility of raising a child the same as the responsibility to the society. They stand not only in an individual position but the social position. Chinese parents consider the children as their own private property. From this point of view, we can understand why more Chinese parents expect their children to be talents than American parents do. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢ The Comparison of Chinese Education and American Education 3.1 Examination-oriented vs. Quality-oriented American education can be called quality-oriented education which tells the students that studying is their own matter, cares more about how students use knowledge in the society and they give students chances to decide what they want to learn, so the students in America are initiative, nimble and happy. Compared with American education, Chinese style of education is quite different. Chinese education is called exam-oriented education which the educators always formulate many kinds of rule beforehand to impose restrictions on what to do, how much one should learn, when to learn and so on. Chinese students have nothing to do but follow. Chinese students regard the study utility and all go for high scores not enjoying the process of success. They look at the study as their parents and teachers matter, and study is only the method which helps them win promotion and earn money to live rich life. So the Chinese students are passive, compelled and dogma. Chinese education is for basic educ ation; their knowledge is profound but far away from the application of daily life. American education is for the students creativity and ability, so in America, a white-collar doesnt know how much 10 plus 6 is is not shameful. They believe that training childrens creative thinking when the children are young is fundamental. But China is completely contradicted. They lay too much stress on foundation education and neglect the training of creative thinking. So American students have low score but high energy, Chinas student have high-grades but low ability. In fortune 500 companies dont want to employ Chinese student, to them, Chinese education raise only servants of knowledge and cant called as nurture the human, on the contrary, American education nurtures the master of knowledge. The test of America is always open book exam, and the students can be hand in the paper in a week. The answer is not one and only.   Chinese schools are exam-oriented which is strict, the result of whic h is one and only. Even though, we are trying a lot to improve our schools to quality-oriented education, the Chinese education is still essentially exam-oriented education. But Americans say that they are learning from us to prepare their students for exams. Maybe, the two extremes of education are going together. 3.2 Teacher-centered vs. Student-centered In China, the teacher is superior while the American teacher is friendly approachable person, even the professor in university carries little weight in class, and everybody is equal. American refuses to accept any authority. Chinese students put blind faith in their teacher. American teachers are always have a great passion and humorous. On the contrary, most Chinese teachers are stern throughout the class. Chinese educations purpose is to teach students to have no question, but American educations aim is teaching students to find questions, ask questions, and solve question. Chinese usually show a child how to do something, or teach by holding their hands and give great priority to train skills at their early age rather than foster creativity. The Chinese parents want to see their children be succeeding in life, insist on private tuition for them and in some cases, for almost every subject. Many parents believe that additional educational activities have many advantages. By extra studies, their children are able to grasp many kinds of practical skills and knowledge, which will put them in a high position in the future job markets when they grow up. Many parents hope that their children become a rich man when they grow up, because these rich people are regarded as the symbol of success and can win respect of others. As an instance, a Yale law school professor, Amy Chua s current book, Battle Hymn of Tiger Mother, which gives society plenty to d ebate about raising kids, was proved to be a high-pitched debate about Chinese education and American education which is superior. She said that she believe that her daughters can be the best student, academic achievement reflect successful parenting education, and that if they didnt stand out in school then there was a problem in her parenting. So she made ten cast-iron rules for her two daughters, such as never allowed to have a play date, never be in school play, never watch TV or play computer games and so on. So in China, the education is teacher-centered, but in America, it is student-centered. When we talk of teaching methods, American teachers barely specify content. On the other hand, Chinese teachers, pay more attention to the content. The only work the student should do is to listen. American teachers have a great passion and are always humorous. On the contrary, most Chinese teachers are always grave throughout the class. 3.3 Different Approaches to Learning: Memory-based vs. Understanding-based Most of China  students have been taught that they should have the good attitude of studying towards goals. They must remember the knowledge the teacher taught. When the children are 3 or 4 years old, most of Chinese parents start teaching children the simple calculating skill and writing their own names and also the family members names. Almost every Chinese have the memory of being obliged to repetition Chinese ancient poems in their childhood. So the Chinese education is memory-based. In America, people more value childrens ability  of practical  application. They just need understanding the knowledge and can use it. To sum up, Chinese Education System and American Education System have their own advantages and disadvantages. Chinese think highly of foundational knowledge whereas Western pay more attention on creativeness. If we could join two systems together, there is going be more Chinese performers on the 21st century stage. 3.4 Expectation on Children In China, there is an idiom which is à ¦Ã…“†ºÃƒ ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã‹â€ Ã‚ Ãƒ ©Ã‚ ¾Ã¢â€ž ¢. It means that the parents hope their children have a bright future whether they are happy or not. But in America, the American parents only want their children to have a happy life and to be a useful person to the society. Education  in  China  makes children dependent while the  western  one makes children independent. When Chinese teach their babies to walk, they always hold their babies hands until they can walk and stand. So when we face difficult, we would think of finding someone to help us firstly, not to solve it by ourselves. But American parents always watch their babies standing up and falling down again and again, leaving their babies crying aloud, and never come to help. So American students are more independent, when there is a Chinese student and an American student, American students will tell their parents: I have enough money to have a trip. Whereas Chinese will say: dad and mom, I want to travel, please give me some money. American people pay more attention to childrens originality and independence more than the Chinese do. And they think self-reliance is a principal value of child. They also think that creativity should be acquired early. On the other hand, skills can be picked up later; American parents think much of developing their childrens creativity which I think is more important than Chinese parents teaching their children by their hand. Teaching by hand is to make children have less ingenuity. America, they teach children that they should depend on themselves for correct solutions to problems. Besides, they put more emphasis on promote creativity in children. Americans let their children solve the problem by themselves. For instance, they let the children know the value of labor, repair the motorcycle themselves at an early age, in China, that work is seen as the adults work. In the American  family, children can call their parents name just like adult and friend, and the children can expre ss their views  and participate in  family  discussions which in china, parents decision is more important. The children can determine things themselves  and parents wont intervene their children if they do not have legitimate reasons. They tend to give their children opportunities to learn  and  correct by themselves, if they did in a wrong way, the parents would advice them in a  euphemistic  way. This independent personality makes their children have more individual abilities  and  efforts. By comparison, we cant say which is better, because every coin has two sides. Everything may be different in different places. We live on the same earth, but the differences of family education are so great that it demand us to do some research and we can get something useful from American education to consummate our family education system. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ £ The Comparison of the Educations Aim and Results between China and America 4.1 The Comparison of the Aims of Education Now people become more and more realize the importance and significance of education. Educations aims determine what kind of people they educated will be. So the aims of education are the nucleus, which is the primary reason of the different education between Chinese and American. Once the aim is constructed, education contents and material must be formulated according to the aims. To train the child into a social man is American educations aims which make students can deal with all kinds of problems and independent ability. To accomplish it is not a high expectation. Social man is not an implementable idea, and easy to achieve. So American parents have an easeful attitude to educate their children. They are good at finding out the strong suit of their children. And also the children can find their passion and value from education. They can experience the joy of studying. As a matter of fact, this kind of education can get good results. Lets see the process of growth of American children. When they are still a baby, they sleep in their own room; When they should learn walk, they learn it by themselves, they seldom ask parents for help; When they grow up, they should clean the rooms by themselves; They do what they can do to earn money from childhood. For example, they do house cleaning, be a delivery boy; when they go to senior middle school or university, they do part-time jobs to make money for tuition. By comparison, Chinese educations aim is to train children into talents. A glorious future means to get an ideal job and to live a rich. First, this aim is high and utility. It is hard to make it come true, because having a glorious future is not an easy work. Because of the aim, Chinese parents especially care for childrens achievements in study. Their only requirement is that their children can turn all the attentions on their study. Nevertheless, they ignore their childrens extraordinary abilities, damage their ability to innovate and imaginations. It turns out that parents would kill the talents of the children. Although, Chinese children study very hard and get good achievements, they lack of abilities to cater to this society. Sometimes, parents hope would be all over. For example, the Australia-Chinese, WeiLi, who is a high flier in music field, a month ago, he killed his mother, and then he left Australia by international flight. His father is a businessman, and his mother is a housewife, so her main work is keeping WeiLi at hard study and requires his son do everything successfully. WeiLi couldnt bear the pressure, so killed his mother. This is a tragedy. The aim of education is not only making children know something but also making them can do something. Based on the common sense of world, student should have the courage to question the authority and raise their own opinions. If some people disagree each other in some respects, they can discuss it with each other until they can have a single voice. We know that two heads are better than one, and all of them could hold their own opinions but all of them could better understand the problem. By this mean, students develop their critical spirit and cater to the development of the society. 4.2 The Comparison of the Educations Results between China and America Different results of education are due to different aims, methods and concepts, the educational result show some obvious different. Generally speaking, American children show us their distinguishing characters when they are in young age. For example, they have very strong ability of independence; they dont depend on their parents after 18 years old. The bulk of them will do some part-time job to earn their own bread. They can keep a cool head when they face troubles. They have the ability to adapting the society and can get on well with other people easily. Because they are independent from family when they are 18 and have experience from their work, they have more courage and confidence. Although Chinese students schoolwork is better than American students, they cant live well independently without the support of their parents. In short, the prominent characteristics of American children are their great capacity and the adaption to the society. Although, Chinese children, teenagers, even university students, who get great achievements in their studies and receive satisfaction, they do things in passive ways, such as timid, relying on other people, lacking of the ability to adapting the environment and get along well with other people. Even worse, with poor independent viability, they cant deal with money in a proper way. In short, they are lack of the sympathy and only want other people to care about them and the ability to help others. Supposing that if a person only cares about himself, what responsibilities can he take for the society? Chinese parents hope their children study hard in the school instead of taking part in the changing society. Nowadays, what kind of the education fits for the society? The future of a nation depends on the young generation. Nations development needs mans creativity, activity, knowledge and talent. As the civilization develops, more and more people need to pay attention to the education of the ability to do all kinds of things and humanity. So todays society needs active talents and all-round. Obviously, American education can bring a child full of creativity and ability; in modern society, parents attach more attention to education in American the same as those in China. By comparison, Chinese family education only can produce a talent, who is good at studying and never against the rules. It is the result of examination-oriented education, which not only do harm to childrens body but also the mind. So Chinese education needs a reform immediately. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¤ Implications for Teaching and Learning In my opinion, on the one hand, we need inherit and develop the fine educational tradition of ancient China; on the other hand, we need grasp the essence from American education, and promote the reforming of Chinese education. 5.1 Education Aims: Turn Talent Education into Human Education. Through the comparison, we can find that American family educations aim is more fitting the progress of the society than Chinas. In the meantime, it can produce more persons with creative ability. That cant be denying. In Chinese exam-oriented education, we mislead and kill a lot of talents. Generally speaking, a persons comprehensive capacity becomes more and more important as the developing of social productive force, the society competition becomes more and more violently. 5.2 Education Contents: Turn One-sided Family Education into All-round Family Education. In China, the aim of education is to pass knowledge to the next generation. Because of the wrong purpose, they trained a large number of students with high score but low ability. This kind of education will make childrens quality development unbalanced, so that it cant fit for this dynamic society. After setting up human education as our educations aim, we should improve childrens comprehensive quality. We should turn one-sided education into all-round education to improve the comprehensive quality of children,. 5.3 To Turn Knowledge Education into Capability Education In todays society, as development of modern science and technology, people have put training ability in a core position than teaching knowledge. Its goal is to improve every aspect of quality which a person needs and fit the requirements of the societys development. Education demands the parents and teacher not only to give children knowledge, food and money, but the skills to get them. Parents should teach the children playing, working and communicating which are the abilities a person should have in modern society. Chinese should turn knowledge-education into capability-education. à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¥ Conclusion The education is a cultural phenomenon which can reflect a nations culture connotation. Chinese and the American education each have its own advantages. To make up for ones deficiency, one should learn from others strong points, pick up good idea from the other, and push forward the educational modernization immediately. China should turn talent education into human education, turn restrained education into loose and comfortable education, and use scientific mode of education to boot the reforms of education. If we can follow these changing, Chinese education will go to a rosy future. American also can get something they lack of from our education. Every child grows up under his parents and teachers educate, so childrens destinies are closely related to education. For the children, for the family, for the society, we should change our wrong way of education. America and China are two great nations. One is the largest developed country and the other is the largest developing country. More and more Chinese people go to the America to study further or advanced knowledge, or just having visits. And more and more American people come to China for jobs and joys. Cultural exchanges have played an important role in friendship and promoting mutual understanding between the two countries.

Wireless Networking And Malicious Association Computer Science Essay

Wireless Networking And Malicious Association Computer Science Essay Wireless security is to prevent unauthorized user to access the wireless network or damage the computer by using wireless network. When the wireless technology has been first introduced to the world, it already has few danger methods that will harm the users desktop or laptop, but that time cracker and hacker dont have any resources to crack or hack a network by using wireless technology. At that time, the wireless network only use by the big company. But now day, wireless network is very common, every corner of the world like cafà ©, shopping mall, school, or college that has provide wireless access for the people to access it. Not only cafà © and college using wireless network, at other country it use wireless technology to connect whole citys network. With this technology, people that around the wireless router can easily to access the wireless network to do the search of the information, check mail or play online game. Because of the wireless technology, now day, every laptop has wireless adapter card pre-install inside and make the laptop more portable and let them can connect to internet easily. Not only for laptop, wireless technology also make benefit for the desktop. Desktop can connect to network by installing a wireless adapter card or plug in an USB wireless adapter then desktop can connect to a network and without cable messy around the floor. In this case, wireless technology has become widely use and because of this reason, the risk of using wireless technology has increase and let many hacker found the way to hack the wireless network. All of security risk is related to the current wireless protocol and encryption method. Most of the wireless networks use IEEE 802.11b for standard communication and IEEE 802.11b have already became standard wireless networking technology among the small business user and home user. The IEEE 802.11b can support the indoor distance from several meter to several hundred meters, and can support the outdoor from several kilometer to several ten of kilometers by using unlicensed wireless band. Now day, the wireless network devices normally are equipped with Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) data encryption. WEP data encryption was based on 64-bit RC4 encryption algorithm. Other that 64-bit RC4 encryption algorithm, 128-bit encryption algorithm is another data encryption on the WEP data encryption. But this kind of device is more expensive compare with 64-bit RC4 encryption and beside that, all the nodes must use the same encryption level. 1.2 Aim of Research Aim of the research is to implement the wireless security into the CSC System to prevent unauthorized user to access the wireless network. To increase the security level of the wireless network. To avoid the data or information inside the server or computer been hacked by unauthorized user. To increase the safety of the data transfer between server and computer. To add extra encryption method to encrypt the packet need to be transfer. To prevent unauthorized user to shut down whole system though the wireless access point. Chapter 2: Main Body 2.1 Wireless Security Concept A research has been carried out about the concept of the Wireless Security and how to enhance the wireless security. Wireless Security is to prevent an unauthorized user to invade the server database and bring harm to entire network. Below are the results of the research. 2.1.1 Unauthorized Access According to the research, have a lot of way to break into the wireless access point without an authorization. The unauthorized access will cause companys daily operation failure and lose profit. Below are the some of the examples unauthorized accesses. 2.1.1.1 MAC Spoofing MAC spoofing is a technique to change an assigned MAC (Media Access Control) address to another different MAC address. When a person using this technique, he/she has his/her reason to changes a network devices MAC address, whether is legitimate or illegitimate. Changes a network devices assigned MAC address allows bypass the access control list on the server or router, either hiding a computer on a network or attacking a network by simulate another network device. MAC spoofing occurs when a cracker or hacker has the ability to listen the network traffic that passed by and through it; the cracker or hacker can identify the MAC address of the computer with network privileges. Most of the wireless system allows MAC filtering to only allow authorized computer that with specific MAC address to access the network. The computer that dont has specific MAC address cant access the network, so the cracker or hacker use a program which has network sniffing capability and combine with other software or program to pretend the computer has any MAC address that the cracker desires. (Wikipedia, 2010) 2.1.1.2 Malicious Association The Malicious Association is hacker that can connect to company network by using their cracked laptop. This type of laptop is known as soft AP (Access Point) and this type of laptop is created by using some software that makes the hacker laptops wireless adapter card look like a legitimate access point. After the hacker has already gained the access to the company network, the hacker can steal the password or plant the computer virus into the network. (Wikipedia, 2010) 2.1.1.3 Ad-hoc Network Ad-hoc network, also known as peer-to-peer network built up between two or more wireless computers and these wireless computers dont have access point in between them. Ad-hoc network usually provide little protection, encryption method to the network. When a company or person using Ad-hoc network and wired infrastructure network together at the same time, and will link up a secured network to an unsecured network. Connect two different network topology need to have a bridge between them. Bridging is in two forms. User can connect the network topology y a direct bridge and indirect bridge. Direct bridge need to configure by the user and indirect bridge is user share resource on the user computer. The indirect bridge is provides two security problems. The first problem is the data can be obtained through the secured network on the user computer and this data exposed to other user discovery via the Ad-hoc network bypassing the user secured network. The second problem is a Trojan, computer virus or worm can be placed on the user computer through the Ad-hoc network. The unauthorized user no needs to crack the password of the network and can place the computer virus through the Ad-hoc network. (Wikipedia, 2010) 2.1.1.4 Denial of Service C:UsersZoukyDesktop424px-Stachledraht_DDos_Attack.jpg DoS (Denial of Service) or DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) will occurs is when an attacker continues non-stop bombards an attacker targeted access point with bogus request, failure messages, or other commands. Denial of service will cause other users cant get into the network and also will cause a network crash. The DoS attack will expose a little bit of the data to the attacker, when the DoS attack happen, the interrupted network will prevents the data flow and also indirectly prevent the data from being transmitted. After the DoS attack has been performed, the attacker will start to observe recovery of the wireless network. During the initial handshake code is start to re-transmitted to the wireless network, the attacker continue what he remain. The attacker will record down the initial handshake code and use cracking tools to analyze the security weakness and exploit this code to get an unauthorized access to the system. (Wikipedia, 2010) 2.1.1.5 Man-in-the-middle Attack Man-in-the-middle attacker using a computer to sets up a soft AP (Access Point) and enticing other computers to log into the computer that already been sets up to soft AP. After this all are done, the attacker connects to a real access point by using other wireless card and the attacker will offers a steady flow of the network traffic through the done hacking computer to real network. Man-in-the-middle attack forces other computers AP drop the connection to real network and reconnect to attackers soft AP. This allows hacker to receive what other computers want data need to send out to real network. (Wikipedia, 2010) 2.2 Basic Security for Wireless Wireless network exist in this world already has a decade, at that time the security for the wireless network still not strong enough to prevent infiltrate by hacker or cracker. But at that time the hacker doesnt familiar on technology or technique to hack the wireless network. One of the reasons is the hacking device to hack the wireless network still hard to achieve on that time market. After a decade, the technology and technique to hack a wireless network and the step to build up the hacking device can found on internet. So now day the wireless network users need to have a strong and better wireless security to secure the wireless network. Below are the basic securities for wireless network for the first wireless network has been introduced. 2.2.1 Service Set Identifier SSID (Service Set Identifier) is a common network name for a device in a wireless LAN and some of the wireless device has its own default SSID. The default SSID can be replaced by other string and normally this string is generated randomly. SSID is to identify a name for particular wireless access point. All wireless network need to have SSID within the wireless access point just can communicate each other. The client doesnt know the SSID of the access point, then that client cant simply access the network; this is to prevent hacker to invade network by access through access point. The hacker need to know the SSID of a network just can complete the 802.11b protocol to access the network. The access point will broadcasts the SSID by the beacon inside the wireless device. However, even the broadcasting of the access point is turn off, the SSID still can detected by hacker with undetected monitoring of particular network or sniffing. So, all the clients need to know the SSID of the acce ss point before can make connection to the wireless device. (Bhagyavati, Wayne C. Summers and Anthony DeJoie, 2004), (Prasad, 2007) 2.2.2 Medium Access Control Address Filter Each wireless access point can be configured only accept the clients MAC address that already registered inside the wireless access point. With this function, the network administrators can limit the access of the client into wireless network by register the clients MAC address into the wireless access point. Most of wireless devices MAC address is unique and MAC address filter only allow the clients MAC address already registered in the wireless access point to access the network. The entire clients MAC address will store into MAC address ACL (Access Control List) and wireless access point will denied other wireless device if the wireless devices MAC address is not register inside wireless access points MAC address ACL. (Bhagyavati, Wayne C. Summers and Anthony DeJoie, 2004), (Prasad, 2007) 2.2.3 Wired Equivalent Privacy WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is intend to give wireless users have a security scheme is equivalent to the wired network security. WEP doesnt provide any superior level or higher than that level of security, although WEP doesnt has superior level of security but it security level is equivalent with wired network. In the practice, the result show that the security level of WEP need to equivalent to wired network security is hardly to achieve. The use of WEP is to prevent the wireless client from sending and receiving data from the wireless access point, the wireless clients need to have the correct WEP key just can connect to the wireless access point. Now mostly of the network devices is equipped with the WEP data encryption and the encryption algorithm for the WEP is 64-bit RC4. Some of the network device capable to uses 128-bit encryption algorithm. After WEP is active, each 802.11 packet will encrypted by 64-bit RC4 key with RC4 cipher stream. This key is composed of 24-bit IV (I nitialization Vector) and other 40-bit is WEP key. IV is chosen by the sender and the IV can be change, this make every packet wont encrypt with the same key. Another additional 4-byte is for ICV (Integrity Check Value); ICV is computed and appended on the original packet. RC4 cipher stream is generated by 64-bit RC4 encryption algorithm. The WEP encryption algorithms work on a key that share between wireless device and wireless access point. The packet is encrypted by using the key before packet is send out and all packets wont have same cipher stream. The packet receiver use integrity check to ensure that the packet is not modified during the transmission. Most of the systems are share a single key among all the wireless device and wireless access point. The Integrity Check Field is to ensure the packets are not been modified during the transmission and Integrity Check Field also encrypted with the RC4 cipher stream. WEP is using CRC-32 (Cyclic Redundancy Code 32) mechanism for i ntegrity check. CRC is defined as a class of checksum to prevent overflow by dividing the message into binary. (Bhagyavati, Wayne C. Summers and Anthony DeJoie, 2004), (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005), (Prasad, 2007) 2.3 Comparison between SSID, MAC Address Control Filter and WEP From the research, SSID (Service Set Identifier), MAC (Medium Access Control) address control filter and WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) are the basic security for the wireless network. This three security methods can implement together in one network. Because these are basic security for wireless network, so the security methods are easy to break by unauthorized user. If not implement other security methods and only just implement SSID, MAC address control Filter and WEP into wireless network, that wireless network will not secure under protection of these three security methods. The wireless access point will broadcast the SSID to the wireless client and wireless client just can access to the access point. When the access point broadcast its own SSID, the entire nearby wireless client will know the SSID of that network or access point, even the unauthorized users also will know the SSID of the network. The unauthorized users will attempt to access the wireless access point. And the wireless access point can close the SSID broadcast function; mean that the SSID is hidden. But when the authorized user requires connecting to the access point, the authorized user will broadcast the SSID to the wireless access point, if the SSID broadcast by the authorized user is match with the SSID of the access point. The authorized user just can make connect to the access point. This make hacker a chance to hack the access point because when authorized user is broadcasts the SSID to the access point, hacker can capture the packet that broadcast by the authorized user and make connection to the wireless access point. The wireless devices MAC address will store inside the wireless access point ACL (Access Control List), the wireless devices MAC address need to be match with MAC address inside the wireless access point ACL just can connect with wireless network. If that wireless network has more than 20 computers need to connect to the wireless network, then the network administrator need to enter all the computers MAC address into the wireless access point ACL. This will make the network administrator very troublesome enter the MAC address one by one and MAC address can be forged. WEP has been considered as a failure in wireless security, at the end it still accepted by the IEEE because WEP wasnt aim for provides fully security for wireless. WEP encryption is very easy to crack by the unauthorized user. WEP only authenticates the wireless client. This allows an unauthorized user to capture the packet send by the wireless client. WEP key is easily lost or stolen by unauthorized user and if the stolen WEP key hasnt been report to the network administrator, the network administrator wont able to detect the unauthorized user has already infiltrated the wireless network. If the stolen WEP key has been reported, network administrator require to change the entire devices that have use the same WEP key with stolen devices WEP key. If the company or enterprise has more than thousands of wireless user using that wireless network, this can be a very difficult task for the network administrator to change the entire WEP key for each wireless users. Like just mentioned, the WEP authentication message is easy to forging by the unauthorized user. Unauthorized user can capture the authentication message that send by the wireless client and forge a new authentication message; unauthorized user can use this forged message to associate with wireless access point. The management for WEP key in not specific in WEP standard. Since dont have management for WEP key, then WEP key will be use for a long term and lack of quality. Most of the wireless network uses one WEP key and share between the entire network and the entire wireless clients access point need to program with same WEP key. Because of this reason, network administrators rarely change the WEP key. SSID, MAC address control filter and WEP is basic security for wireless network; these methods still cant apply in wireless network. Just using SSID, MAC address control filter and WEP are not enough to prevent the security break. These methods require associate with other security methods to enhance the wireless security to prevent security break. 2.4 Advanced Security for Wireless From the research that carried out, advanced wireless securities are to replace the basic wireless security and improve what basic wireless security vulnerability. 2.4.1 Wi-Fi Protected Access WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) is a certification program that created by Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Alliance; WPA is a subset of the IEEE 802.11i. This technology is designed to response to the weaknesses that found in WEP. WPA will generate the key based on the master key and the master key never use by WPA. To encrypt the data, WPA is much more secure than WEP. Key management and updating in WEP is poorly provided, the secure key management is a built-in function in WPA. Mean that WPA can update and manage the key easily, not like WEP. If WEP need to manage or update the key, the network administrator needs to change entire wireless client key that has connection with the wireless network. WPA got one key only and that is master key like just mentioned, network administrator only require to change that master key then WPA will generate the key based on the master key. Generated key is hierarchy of the master key. So this make the management and updating become much easier. The IV (Initialization Vector) values can be reuse and the length of the IV is become longer, from 24-bit increase to 48-bit. Another additional part, the IVs are the sequence counters for the TSC (TKIP Sequence Counter), to protect the loop of the data. The WEP message integrity protocol CRC-32 has been proved ineffective. Because of this reason, WPA uses a MIC (Message Integrity Check) mechanism to replace the WEP message integrity protocol. The correct MIC is very difficult to guess. (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005), (Bhagyavati, Wayne C. Summers and Anthony DeJoie, 2004), (DifferenceBetween, 2010) WPA has 3 improvements over WEP: Improved Data Encryption WPA improves the data encryption through the TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol). TKIP generates the key by using hashing algorithm and adding the integrity checking feature, this will ensure the key havent been edited by other person. TKIP is a Temporal Key hash Function and it is another option to WEP to fix all security problems that WEP has and it doesnt require installing other new hardware. TKIP same like WEP, use RC4 stream cipher to encrypt and decrypt data and all involved clients require share the same key. This key must be 128-bit and it calls Temporal Key (TK). The Initialization Vector also include in TKIP. Even if the TK is shared among all the wireless clients, all wireless clients generate different RC4 key stream. Since the communication participants perform a 2-phase generation of a unique Per-Packet Key (PPK), which is used as the key for the RC4 key stream. (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005) User Authentication User authentication in WPA is through the EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol). This function is missing in WEP and WEP access to the wireless network is based on computers network cards MAC address and MAC address is very simple to be stolen. The purpose of EAP is to create a more secure public-key encryption system to ensure that only authorized user can access the wireless network. (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005) Integrity WPA has a new mechanism call (MIC) Message Integrity Code for TKIP is computed by a new algorithm, name Michael. MIC is computed to detect errors in the data contents, either is transfer errors or purposely change the data content. The Michael is a 64-bit MIC and need to add to the data and ICV (Integrity Check Value). (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005) 2.4.2 Robust Security Network RSN (Robust Security Network), also call as WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) 2. At year 2004, concept of RSN has been released, where the wireless devices need to support by additional capabilities. RSN is fully tested by Wi-Fi Alliances. RSN has a whole new standard and architecture to utilize the IEEE 802.1X standard for AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) and access control. RSN is using a pair-wise key exchange (Four Way Handshake) protocol, RSN also utilizing with 802.1X for key management process and mutual authentication. Now, 802.11i allows for the network implementation and also can use TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol). By default RSN uses CCMP (Counter Mode MAC Protocol) and AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) to provide for a scalable and stronger solution. AES is a replacement for RC4. Data transmission between the wireless access point and wireless device, RSN uses encryption algorithms and dynamic negotiation of authentication on the data transmission. The authentication of RSN is based on 802.1X and EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol). Encryption algorithms and dynamic negotiation of authentication make RSNs security more secure and save. RSN is stronger and better than WEP and WPA because RSN is using dynamic negotiation, 802.1X, EAP and AES. Unfortunately only the latest devices have the capability let RSN to accelerate the speed of algorithms calculation in wireless client and wireless access point; now day of wireless product cant fully provide the performance of RSN. (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005), (Bhagyavati, Wayne C. Summers and Anthony DeJoie, 2004), (DifferenceBetween, 2010) 2.5 Comparison between WPA and WEP WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) is the solution for the WEP vulnerability, has some critics done for the WEP, the WPA has numerous enhancements over WEP. WPAs TKIP encryption algorithm has fully enhances the WEPs RC4 encryption algorithm. TKIP make the data encryption more efficient and replace the RC4 vulnerability. WPA has made the key management became much more easier compare with WEP, because the WEPs key require enter one by one to the wireless client, if the company has more than thousands users then the network administrator need to enter more than thousands keys into the users computer. If the key is hacked by unauthorized user, then network administrator need to change key for entire companys computers. On the other hand, WPA no needs so troublesome, WPA only needs to enter one master key, and then WPA will generate key according with the hierarchy of master key, after that WPA will assign the key to the clients and the key is generated in 48-bit of IV size. Even the company g ot more ten thousands users also no need to trouble the network administrator. If one of the key has been hacked by unauthorized user, TKIP just need to generate a new key then network administrator can info the wireless client to change the key. WPA has EAP to authenticate the wireless user. WEP is using MAC address to authenticate the wireless user and some of the wireless devices MAC address can be forged. If the wireless devices MAC address has been forged by unauthorized user then the unauthorized user can easier to connect the wireless network without known by the network administrator. Network administrator also wont notify the wireless network is infiltrated by the unauthorized user until the wireless user report there is a missing MAC address. WPA is using EAP to authenticate the wireless user and the EAP for each wireless client is hard to forge by unauthorized user. If the EAP of the client is forging, but the unauthorized user still need wireless clients private key just can access the wireless network. WEP dont have error checking for the data content, and this will cause the looping of the data. If cant prevent replay attacks and will cause the wireless network crash. WPA has inserted the MIC into TKIP and IV sequence mechanism; this is to prevent replay attacks in the wireless network. MIC and IV sequence mechanism support for the existing wireless infrastructures not require installing new wireless device. Adding MIC and IV sequence mechanism without install new wireless device, adding these two methods can increase the wireless security and also without increase the installation cost of wireless device. Compare WPA with the WEP, WPA has solved a lot of WEP vulnerabilities. This make WPA is more secure compare with WEP because WEP only is basic security for the wireless network; it doesnt provide any protection for the wireless network. WEPs security methods can let a small enterprise to setup a small wireless network. For the big company, WEPs security methods are hard preventing the unauthorized access from outsider. 2.6 Comparison between WPA and RSN For now, never the less, RSN (Robust Security Network) is the strongest wireless security protocol for the wireless network. RSN provide stronger data encryption algorithm and all advantages of WPA. The RSN data encryption algorithm method is using AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) to encrypt the data. What advantages WPA have all included in RSN, expect the RSN data encryption algorithm is more advance. For WPA require upgrade for the software and firmware of the wireless device for the existing wireless network infrastructure, but the RSN doesnt support existing wireless network infrastructure, require upgrading the wireless device in order to implement AES. Implement RSN into the existing wireless network infrastructure require extra cost for just upgrade the hardware. RSN need large amount of processing resources in order to protect the wireless network. Mean that implement RSN will reduce the wireless network performance by processing the data transfer or verify the wireless client. 2.7 Table of Comparison between WEP, WPA and RSN Below is summary of the comparison between WEP, WPA and RSN: Features of Mechanism WEP WPA RSN Encryption Cipher Mechanism RC4 RC4 / TKIP AES / CCMP CCMP / TKIP Encryption Key Size 40 bits 128 bits 128 bits Encryption Key Management None 802.1x 802.1x Encryption Key Per Packet Concatenated Mixed No need Encryption Key Change None For Each Packet No need IV Size 24 bits 48 bits 48 bits Authentication Weak 802.1x EAP 802.1x EAP Data Integrity CRC 32 ICV MIC (Michael) CCM Header Integrity None MIC (Michael) CCM Replay Attack Prevention None IV Sequence IV Sequence (Halil Ibrahim BulBul, Ihsan Batmaz and Mesut Ozel, 2005) Chapter 3: Conclusion 3.1 Achievement of Objectives 3.1.1 To increase the security level of the wireless network. In chapter 2.2 until 2.4, the different wireless securities provide different service. 3.1.2 To avoid the data or information inside the server or computer been hacked by unauthorized user. In chapter 2.1, the type of the unauthorized user that can infiltrates the wireless network and chapter 2.2 and 2.4 the methods to prevent hacking. 3.1.3 To increase the safety of the data transfer between server and computer. In chapter 2.2 until 2.4, increase the safety of the wireless access point of wireless network. 3.1.4 To add extra encryption method to encrypt the packet need to be transfer. From chapter 2.2 until 2.4, the extra encryption methods that can hide the data detail. 3.1.5 To prevent unauthorized user to shut down whole system though the wireless access point. In chapter 2.2 until 2.4, the methods to prevent the unauthorized user to connect with wireless access point. 3.2 Research Conclusion A research has been carried out to finish this seminar report by studying the type of the unauthorized access, concept of the wireless security and how efficiency is the wireless network security by determine the wireless security method. Now wireless has already became widely use by company or enterprise, even at home also can using wireless to connect to internet for home purpose like surfing the internet. The reason why so many people like to use wireless network compare with wired network, is because the structure of wireless network is more neat and easy to manage. At the time wireless just came out to the market, the security for the wireless still breakable by hacker or cracker but need a lot of resources to break the security of wireless network. Because last time, wireless network just introduced, the hacker or cracker lack of technology and technique to break the wireless network. Still after few years, the technology and technique to break the wireless security can found in internet. At that time the wireless network has sound the alert and organizations are finding the solution for solve the wireless security problem. But now, the new technology of wireless security has out to market and the security methods are easy to install. So, now wireless security is not a problem. In the report got mentioned is RSN can be the most dependable wireless security for the wireless network. But it still has certain problem like higher cost. Installation for the RSN needs to change whole wireless network infrastructure. WPA got a lot of security methods that cant compare with RSN but WPA still dependable just like RSN. Doesnt mean the expensive item is the good item. As long as the item is reliable then that item is a good item.

George Orwell 1984: Unmasking Totalitarianism Essay -- Literary Analys

The outlook to the future is usually one filled with hope. When failures of the past and present problems collide together, the future is often seen as a place of hope. This mindset was no different in Britain during the mid 20th century, especially in the late 1940’s. During this time, World War II had finally ended, the days of fighting Nazi Germany was behind everyone, but present circumstances were bleak. Britain was still recovering from the effects of World War II and handling the transition of a new socialist democratic government. At the same time, from the east there loomed Stalin’s Soviet Union with its communism government and Totalitarian ruling mindset. Many were oblivious to the facts surrounding communism and saw salvation in it. In Mitzi Brunsdale Student Companion to George Orwell she states that â€Å"Western support for Stalin often took the form of neo-religious adulation†¦all kinds of personal and social inadequacies drove a troubled g eneration into projecting its neuroses on to a perfected proletarian Utiopia† (139). Many in the west were discouraged with present conditions and looked to this apparent Utopia as their answer. On the other hand, George Orwell stood in direct opposition. His resistance against the Totalitarian rule of Stalin was especially expressed in one of his most popular books called 1984, which as Valerie Meyers in Modern Novelist George Orwell says â€Å"brings home to England the experience of countless who suffered in Totalitarian regimes of Eastern Europe† (114). Through his writings, George Orwell was able to make the evils of Totalitarianism real to the ignorant. In 1984, George Orwell exposed three dangerous aspects of Totalitarianism by showing the oppression of the individual's... ...hose who read his book. Even in the future, every reader is given a ever relevant warning and is faced with the reality of the possibility of such a society existing. With technology advancing and many history defining issues arising, the possibility of elements of 1984 coming true seems to become increasingly real. History always repeats itself, and generations tend to forget the lessons of the past. Works Cited Bal, Sant S. George Orwell The Ethical Imagination. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities, 1981. Print. Brunsdale, Mitzi M. Student Companion to George Orwell. Westport: Greenwood, 2000. Print. Meyers, Jeffrey. A Reader's Guide to George Orwell. Totown: Littlefield, Adams &, 1975. Print. Meyers, Valerie. Modern Novelists George Orwell. New York: St. Martin's, 1991. Print. Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four. New York: Penguin Group, 2003. Print.

Ernest Hemingway Essay -- essays research papers

Ernest Hemingway Ernest Hemingway based his writing on real life experiences concerning death, relationships, and lies. He then mixed these ideas, along with a familiar setting, to create a masterpiece. Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899 in Oak Park Illinois. One of Hemmingway’s first works was Indian Camp published in 1925. In many ways Indian Camp shows the relationship between Hemingway and his father. Hemingway then digs deeper into the past to create the love between Frederick Henry and Catherine Barkley, in A Farwell To Arms. Hemingway was later able to reflect his disgust of home life when he portrayed himself as the character Krebs in Soldiers Home, the character had problems with lies, women, and at home.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the story Indian Camp the main character Nick and his father resemble the relationship between Hemingway and his father. Nick is a teenage boy that travels across the lake to an Indian Village. He watches his father, who is a doctor; deliver a baby by caesarian section to an Indian woman. Nicks father discovers that the baby’s father has committed suicide. Nick and his father have a conversation discussing death, which brings the story to an end. Hemingway grew up in a middle class suburb, where his parents Ed and Grace raised him. Ed was a doctor who took his son along on visits across Walloon Lake to the Ojibway Indians (Waldhorn 7). When Hemingway was young, his father made him have his tonsils removed by another doctor. The doctor did not use anesthetic while performing the surgery. Hemingway always held it against his dad for having his tonsils taken out, with out an anesthetic (Myers 48). Hemingway portrayed his father as the doctor in Indian Camp. In the story Nick asked his father about giving the Indian woman something to stop her screaming during the caesarian. Nicks father states â€Å"No. I haven’t any anesthetic†¦but her screams are not important. I don’t hear them because they are not important† (Tessitore 18). Hemingway uses the conversation between Nick and his father, concerning the suicide of the Indian, to show his distaste for his own father’s suicide. Nick: â€Å"Why did he kill himself, Daddy?† Father: â€Å"I don’t know Nick. He couldn’t stand things, I guess.† Nick: â€Å"Do many men kill themselves, Daddy?† Father: â€Å"Not very many, Nick†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Nick: â€Å"Is dying hard, Daddy?† Father: â€Å"No, I think its pretty easy, Nick... ...d his lost love, he produced the character Krebs who was troubled by female companionship. Krebs wanted a woman but was not willing to work for one. Krebs considered relationships too complicated and painful. Hemingway learned this from previous relationships especially the relationship between Hemingway and Kurowsky. Krebs who lived with his parents after the war continued to do nothing around the house. Tensions grew between him and his parents and Krebs was eventually driven out. Hemingway was almost identical to Krebs in the story. Hemingway is heart broken after the war because of Kurowsky. Tension had also grown between Hemingway and his mother. â€Å"Shortly after Hemingway’s twenty- first birthday†¦ his mother gave him an ultimatum that he had to find a real job or move out of the house† (Waldhorn 9). Both Hemingway and Krebs moved out and got jobs. Hemingway wrote form his past experiences form life. In Indian Camp it showed his relationship with his father. By leaving his childhood and entering the war, he was able to come up with the character Henry and Barkley in A Farwell In Arms. When returning home from the war Hemingway used Krebs in Soldier’s Home to express his distast

Alternative Medicine :: essays papers

Alternative Medicine Throughout recorded history, people of various cultures have relied on what Western medical practitioners today call alternative medicine. The term alternative medicine covers a broad range of healing philosophies, approaches, and therapies. It generally describes those treatments and health care practices that are outside mainstream Western health care. People use these treatments and therapies in a variety of ways. Alternative therapies used alone are often referred to as alternative; when used in combination with other alternative therapies, or in addition to conventional therapies they are referred to as complementary. Some therapies are far outside the realm of accepted Western medical theory and practice, but some, like chiropractic treatments, are now established in mainstream medicine. Worldwide, only an estimated ten to thirty percent of human health care is delivered by conventional, biomedically oriented practitioners ("Fields of Practice"). The remaining seventy to ninety percent ranges from self-care according to folk principles, to care given in an organized health care system based on alternative therapies ("Fields of Practice"). Many cultures have folk medicine traditions that include the use of plants and plant products. In ancient cultures, people methodically collected information on herbs and developed well-defined herbal pharmacopoeias. Indeed, well into the twentieth century much of the pharmacology of scientific medicine was derived from the herbal lore of native peoples. Many drugs commonly used today are of herbal origin: one-quarter of the prescription drugs dispensed by community pharmacies in the United States contain at least one active ingredient derived from plant material ("Fields of Practice"). Twenty years ago, few physicians would have advised patients to take folic acid to prevent birth defects, vitamin E to promote a healthy heart, or vitamin C to bolster their immune systems. Yet today, doctor and patient alike know of the lifesaving benefits of these vitamins. Twenty years ago, acupuncture, guided imagery, and therapeutic touch were considered outright quackery. Now, however, in clinics and hospitals around the country, non-traditional therapies are gaining wider acceptance as testimonials and studies report success using them to treat such chronic maladies as back pain and arthritis. The number of people availing themselves of these alternative therapies is staggering. In 1991 about twenty-one million Americans made four hundred and twenty-five million visits to practitioners of these types of alternative medicine; more than the estimated three hundred and eighty-eight million visits made to general practitioners that year (Apostolides). The U.S. Department of Education has accredited more than twenty acupuncture schools and more than thirty medical schools now offer courses in acupuncture (Lombardo; Smith). As the number of Western medical institutions researching alternative therapies increases, the legitimacy of at least some alternative therapies will also increase. Alternative Medicine :: essays papers Alternative Medicine Throughout recorded history, people of various cultures have relied on what Western medical practitioners today call alternative medicine. The term alternative medicine covers a broad range of healing philosophies, approaches, and therapies. It generally describes those treatments and health care practices that are outside mainstream Western health care. People use these treatments and therapies in a variety of ways. Alternative therapies used alone are often referred to as alternative; when used in combination with other alternative therapies, or in addition to conventional therapies they are referred to as complementary. Some therapies are far outside the realm of accepted Western medical theory and practice, but some, like chiropractic treatments, are now established in mainstream medicine. Worldwide, only an estimated ten to thirty percent of human health care is delivered by conventional, biomedically oriented practitioners ("Fields of Practice"). The remaining seventy to ninety percent ranges from self-care according to folk principles, to care given in an organized health care system based on alternative therapies ("Fields of Practice"). Many cultures have folk medicine traditions that include the use of plants and plant products. In ancient cultures, people methodically collected information on herbs and developed well-defined herbal pharmacopoeias. Indeed, well into the twentieth century much of the pharmacology of scientific medicine was derived from the herbal lore of native peoples. Many drugs commonly used today are of herbal origin: one-quarter of the prescription drugs dispensed by community pharmacies in the United States contain at least one active ingredient derived from plant material ("Fields of Practice"). Twenty years ago, few physicians would have advised patients to take folic acid to prevent birth defects, vitamin E to promote a healthy heart, or vitamin C to bolster their immune systems. Yet today, doctor and patient alike know of the lifesaving benefits of these vitamins. Twenty years ago, acupuncture, guided imagery, and therapeutic touch were considered outright quackery. Now, however, in clinics and hospitals around the country, non-traditional therapies are gaining wider acceptance as testimonials and studies report success using them to treat such chronic maladies as back pain and arthritis. The number of people availing themselves of these alternative therapies is staggering. In 1991 about twenty-one million Americans made four hundred and twenty-five million visits to practitioners of these types of alternative medicine; more than the estimated three hundred and eighty-eight million visits made to general practitioners that year (Apostolides). The U.S. Department of Education has accredited more than twenty acupuncture schools and more than thirty medical schools now offer courses in acupuncture (Lombardo; Smith). As the number of Western medical institutions researching alternative therapies increases, the legitimacy of at least some alternative therapies will also increase.

Psychological Assessment Essay

Organisations worldwide are currently facing increasing competition, price pressures and slowergrowth rates and in order to be successful, for many organisations, this prompts the need to constantly change to survive. Having the right employee fit-for-purpose is imperative to the success of an organisation faced with such challenges. The use of psychological assessment is a key enabler for the appropriate selection and development of employees in the workplace to meet the constant changes in the internal and external economic and social environment (Bartram, 2004; Paterson &Uys, 2005). However, the nature and value of current day psychological assessment needs to be assessed as it faces many challenges, particularly in a South African context that is influenced by political injustices of the past. Psychological test use in South Africa currently faces many challenges including the adaptation of tests in a multicultural context, language, age and gender barriers and other measurement challenges (Foxcroft, 2004; Foxcroft, 2006). These challenges introduce criticism of the fairness and ethical practices of psychological assessment and highlight the need  for enhancing fairness in assessment and developing equitable and unbiased psychological tests (Foxcroft, 2011; Paterson & Uys, 2005). In order to respond to these challenges, it is important to gain an understanding of how psychological assessments have developed over the years so that meaningful changes can be made ((Foxcroft, Roodt & Abrahams, 2005). It is important to reflect on the history and development of psychological assessment as it helps explain how and why it is currently practiced, it allows for critical analysis of psychological assessment, identifying the strengths and weaknesses  of tests used today and provides lessons to be learned from the weaknesses and injustices of past assessment practices so that psychologists can develop new assessment tools and techniques and ensure fair and ethical social practices of psychological assessment (Gregory, 2000; Moerdyk, 2009). The perceptions of psychological assessment being unfair and biased are slowly changing as improvements are made in the development of tests and in South Africa this is closely linked to the developments and changes in legislation and the professional bodies that govern the control and use of  psychological assessments (Mauer, 2000; Paterson & Uys, 2005). The objective of this discussion is to evaluate the nature and value of psychological assessment practices in the South African work context by critically reflecting on the historical developments that have shaped and influenced current psychological assessment, focusing onhow test use have been transformed by legislation, government and society and the challenges that exist for fair and unbiased psychological assessment in South Africa. Finally, the ways in which fairness and bias in testing is currently being addressed and the steps in developing further ethical practices of  psychological assessment will be discussed. This discussion will also include an overview of psychological assessment STUDENT NO: 44674481 4 and clarification of central concepts such as psychometrics, testing, measurement and evaluation, fairness and bias. 1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT? 1. 1. DEFINING PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Foxcroft & Roodt (2005, p. 4), define psychological assessment as a â€Å"†¦ process-oriented activity aimed at gathering a wide array of information by using assessment measures (tests) and information from many other sources.. † in order to make inferences about human behaviour. Shepard & Spalding (as cited in Setshedi, 2008) note that psychological assessments make use of standardised instruments, which, combined with other sources of information, are evaluated to inform some intervention. 1. 2. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND RELATED TERMS Psychological assessment refers to the overall multidimensional process that uses tools (tests) and techniques for measurement and evaluation of human behaviour (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). Psychological assessment can be distinguished from some related terms commonly used, such as, psychometrics, testing, psychometric testing,  measurement and evaluation. 1. 2. 1. Measurement and Assessment Measurement refers to the ‘how much’ in an assessment. When doing an assessment, psychologists use measurement to ascribe values or numbers to a phenomenon against certain criteria or standardized norms, following predefined rules (Moerdyk, 2009). Measurement therefore helps in gathering information to add to the holistic assessment of a phenomenon. 1. 2. 2. Evaluation and Assessment Evaluation refers to â€Å"†¦interpreting or attaching a judgemental value to an assessment†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Moerdyk, 2009, p. 4). In other  words, evaluation refers to reaching conclusions about the measurement outcomes (Moerdyk, 2009). Thus evaluation forms part of the process of the overall assessment. STUDENT NO: 44674481 5 1. 2. 3. Psychometrics and Assessment Psychometrics is the subfield of psychology that refers to the use of scientific methods, theory and techniques used in psychological measurement (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). Psychologists base their assessments on these scientific ways of measurement in an attempt to learn more about or predict behaviour. Thus psychological assessment is informed by the study of Psychometrics (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). 1. 2. 4. Testing and Assessment Testing refers to the use of a tool (for example, psychometric tests, scales, or instruments) to inform decision making (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009; Patterson & Uys, 2005). Tests are not used in isolation but as part of the bigger process of assessment in order to make fair and informed decisions. Patterson & Uys (2005) argue that assessment is the overall process which includes testing, but more than testing, it implies the holistic evaluation based on test results and other information from other assessment methods. 1. 2. 5. Psychometric Testing and Assessment. Psychometric testing refers to testing based on psychometric theory and practices and is mainly used in industries for recruitment, selection and counselling purposes (Gregory, 2000). According to van der Merwe (2002), psychometric testing can be a useful tool in making decisions about management of employees and if used appropriately with insight and sensitivity it can become one of the most effective ways in predicting behavior that is not surfaced during screening interviews. In South Africa psychometric testing is regulated by the Employee Equity Act of 1998 which prohibits the use  of psychometric tests or assessments unless it proves to be scientifically valid and reliable, is fair and free from bias (Foxcroft et al, 2005). 1. 3. THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Psychologists use techniques and tools in assessment in attempts to gain a better understanding of human behaviour, to describe certain phenomenon, as well as topredict future behaviour. Psychological assessments are also used to identify and plan interventions to change behaviour and in decision making (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009). Some of the main areas of assessment are cognitive, behavioural and personality assessment (Moerdyk, 2009). 1. 4. THE VALUE OF PSYCHOLIGICAL ASSESSMENT IN INDUSTRY Organisations benefit from psychological assessments as it aids in making clear and informed decisions in managing STUDENT NO: 44674481 6 human resources. Bartram (2004, p. 238) highlights the value of assessments in personnel selection enabling â€Å"†¦organisations to act both tactically and strategically to increase their effectiveness†. Psychometric tests make it possible for organisations to measure attributes that can’t easily be assessed at face value but that may be crucial in job performance, such as personality and leadership assessments (Moerdyk, 2009). Assessments are also used to measure work performance to identify training needs (Moerdyk, 2009), management and leadership assessments to inform development plans (Bartram, 2004), as well as assessments to improve employee wellness (Moerdyk, 2009). Assessments can also inform career counselling needs, career and organisational development plans, and research (Moerdyk, 2009). 2. FAIRNESS AND BIAS IN SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT From the above it is clear that there is a need for psychological assessments in the workplace for organisations and individuals to benefit from human resource management. However psychological assessment practices over the years have drawn attention to bias in testing and fairness and ethical issues in assessment. The developments of psychological testing and assessment practices in South Africa will be further discussed to show how historically assessments have been unfair and bias and how this has been addressed in current practices. First it is important to clarify what is meant by fairness and bias in testing and assessment. 2. 1. THE CONCEPT OF FAIRNESS AND BIAS Bias can be defined as the â€Å"systemic error in measurement or research that affects one group (e. g. race, age, and  gender) more than another† (Moerdyk, p. 261). In the work context this means that the psychometric tests that are administered to people need to measure what it’s supposed to measure and it needs to be consistent and systematic in measurement across different groups. Bias in testing can be controlled through the use of statistical procedures or other objective measures (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009). Fairness refers to the equitable nature of the psychological assessment processes and procedures and the lack of bias in testing methods and interpretation. Fairness is both subjective and contextual as can be seen in South Africa where  the use of affirmative action is used in human resource practices to address discrimination in past assessment practices. To be fair to previously disadvantaged groups it has become necessary to select and develop employees that score lower on tests. This raises the debate of whether the previously advantaged groups are now being unfairly treated. There is the option of treating both groups fairly, however it does not resolve the unfair, bias and discriminatory practices of the past (Moerdyk, 2009). STUDENT NO: 44674481 7 Both fairness and bias are important in psychological assessment in South Africa and are governed and regulated at the  individual (practitioner) level, through professional bodies as well as through legislation. Fairness and bias in assessment has been a challenge in South Africa and has been shaped and influenced particularly by the political ideologies through time. These challenges in fair and unbiased testing and the development of psychological test methods inSouth Africa will now be further explored. 2. 2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN SOUTH AFRICA 2. 2. 1. Early Use (Pre-Apartheid Era) of Psychological Assessments The early developments of psychological assessments in South Africa were introduced in the twentieth century and  followed closely with the developments internationally (Painter & Terre Blanche, 2004). The psychological tests that were introduced at the time in the country were largely influenced by the political context (Foxcroft et al, 2005). South Africa was a British colony and thus the psychological tests used were influenced by the political ideologies of the British rule and focused on assisting in the regulation of differential treatment (Louw, 2002). Most of the tests that were administered were for whites only and were based on either adaptations of international tests (e. g. Stanford-Binet adaptation) or were  developed specifically for use in South Africa (e. g. South African Group Test). Other examples include the study by Fick, who measured intellectual abilities across different race groups using tests that was standardized for whites and concluded that whites had superior intellect. This study influenced the Bantu Education system but the limitations of the study were also highly criticised (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Thus in this era of British colonial rule, tests in South Africa were biased, discriminatory against other races and psychological assessments ignored the influence of other social factors on  test performance such as poverty, language, culture, etc. (Claassen, 1997; Foxcroft et al, 2005; Louw, 2002). 2. 2. 2. Development of Tests During the Apartheid Era In the early 1900s the political rule in South Africa was based on laws of segregation (apartheid) which believed that blacks and whites were different and should be treated differently (Claassen, 1997; Louw & van Hoorn,1997). Thus, most of the tests that were used supported the regulation of legislature that encouraged such thinking (Foxcroft et al, 2005; Louw & van Hoorn, 1997). Between the two world wars, research started to focus on understanding the â€Å"Native† and psychology aimed to support the government and apartheid rule (Louw & van Hoorn, 1997). After the Second World War, assessments focused on suitable placements of blacks in the workplace, and tests such as the General Adaptability STUDENT NO: 44674481 8 Battery (GAB) were used. In this era, tests were used without adapting to South African norms, on whites, such as the Otis Mental Ability Test (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Between the 1960’s and 1990’s institutes were formed (National Institute for Personnel Research, Institute for Psychological and Edumetric Research) as well as changes in legislation were made to regulate the administration of  psychological assessments. The Health Professions Act 56 of 1974 regulated that only psychologists were allowed to administer psychological assessments. Radical changes in the socio-political situation started in the 1980’s and apartheid rules started to soften. Different races started to compete for positions in the workplace and this raised concerns about the test measures that were being used. Tests such as the General Scholastic Aptitude Test (GSAT), the Ability Processing of Information and Learning Battery (APIL-B) and the Pencil and Paper Games were introduced to address these concerns. The Pencil and PaperGames was made available in all 11 languages in South Africa to address bias and application in a multicultural context. These tests however we criticised as it was based on inappropriate norms. As the apartheid regime came to an end, psychological assessment was held under much scepticism and negative perceptions were developed because of the discriminatory nature and use of tests at that time (Foxcroft et al, 2005; Van de Vijver & Rothman, 2004). 2. 2. 3. Development of Tests in Post Apartheid Era After the abolition of the apartheid era, South Africa became a country based on democracy and radical changes were  made in political policy and legislation to address the wrongs of the past (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Psychological assessment was held under much criticism and the changes in constitution and legislation lead to a major shift in the approach of testing in South Africa. Some of the issues that were highlighted in the practices of testing during the apartheid era were the discriminatory use of tests, the lack of applicability in a multicultural context creating bias, as well as other ethical issues such as the use of inappropriate norms and standards (Foxcroft et al, 2005). The changes in politics will now be  further discussed to show how it addressed the above issues and regulates fair, ethical and unbiased assessments in current society. 2. 3. ENHANCING FAIRNESS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA 2. 3. 1. Changes in Constitution Chapter 2 of the South African Constitution addresses the Bill of Rights, which calls for democracy based on dignity, equality and freedom. Furthermore, Section 9 of the Bill of Rights states that no persons may be subject to unfair STUDENT NO: 44674481 9 discrimination or unfairly discriminate unto others (Mauer, 2000). This means that no tests may be used to discriminate  against any individual, group or institution and called for fair assessment approaches. Psychological assessments therefore are required to aim to eliminate any bias in testing. Thus a dynamic and multicultural assessment approach is necessary which encourages the development of culture-specific and culture-informed psychological practices for the various cultural groups in South Africa (Van de Vijver & Rothman, 2004). 2. 3. 2. The Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995) The Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995) (LRA) protects individuals against unfair labour practices and discrimination in the  workplace (Mauer, 2000). This has an impact on the ethical considerations of organisations when employing psychological assessments. Joiner (2000) provides guidelines for fair and ethical practices in psychological assessment which ensures that psychologists take responsibility in assessments protecting the rights of individuals, treating individuals fairly, and not misusing the information from test results. Both the constitution and LRA address unfair discrimination and allow for fair discrimination if it can be proven that the discrimination is fair. 2. 3. 3. The Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998) The Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998) (EEA) enforces fair, unbiased and equitable practices in psychological testing by regulating the requirements of tests. The Act clearly states that psychological testing and other forms of assessment is prohibited unless it can be scientifically proven to be valid and reliable, can be applied fairly and is unbiased to any employee or group. The impacts of this act means that psychological tests need to be cross-culturally applicable (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Foxcroft (2004) highlights the need for more tests to be developed in South Africa that can be used  in a multicultural context. Organisations need to take cognisance of the above legislation that regulates fair and unbiased practices of assessment and should aim to practice testing ethically by ensuring that the rights of individuals are protected, the processes of assessment is fair, confidentiality of individuals is protected, individuals are given feedback to assessments, and the outcomes of assessment is not harmful to the individuals (Moerdyk, 2009). In line with the LRA the EEA also allows for fair discrimination in employment, specifically affirmative action if used in  accordance with the Act. It also allows for fair discrimination in employment based on criteria that are inherent to the job which means that the assessment tools used to assess individuals need to assess evidence of these criteria. 2. 3. 4. Professional Bodies Other bodies such as the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), the Professional Board of Psychology STUDENT NO: 44674481 10 and the Board for Personnel Practitioners govern the practice of psychological assessment in South Africa to ensure fair and ethical approaches in psychology (Moerdyk, 2009; Wassenaar, 1998). Psychological tests can only be administered by individuals professionally registered with the HPCSA, which provides professional guidance and advice for the use of psychological assessments (form 208). The HPCSA regulates the training of professionals, the development of psychological tests and the use of psychological tests. 2. 4. ENHANCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF FAIR AND UNBIASED ASSESSMENT MEASURES 2. 4. 1. Steps in Test Development To address some of the issues in fairness and bias in testing, Foxcroft (2004) has identified some critical steps in developing tests, particularly for a multicultural context. These include: (a) Defining the purpose of the test and the intended target population This involves outlining what is being tested, how the outcomes of the tests will be used and specifying that the test can be used in a multicultural setting. This implies that the test developer needs to identify aspects of the constructs that are common and unique across the groups being tested. The test developer should also identify the characteristics of the target population (such as educational status) and also identify the characteristics that may impact on test performance  (such as language) (Foxcroft, 2004). One of the major challenges in assessment in South Africa at the moment is language. In South Africa there are eleven official languages, and although English is the commonly accepted business language, psychologists need to ensure that in administering tests language is not a barrier in test performance. Translation of tests into different language is complex and makes the validity of constructs vulnerable (Foxcroft, 2006). (b) Defining the construct and creating a set of test specifications to guide item writing  This step refers to identifying the specific observable measures that will be tested. This can be derived from a job analysis which highlights the key knowledge, skills, abilities and other attributes required to perform a job successfully. It is important in a multicultural test that the norms and values across the different cultural groups for a specific construct are identified upfront so as to eliminate the construct bias. The constructs being measured need to also be of value and have meaning to the test user. Language is often a barrier in the meaning of a construct across multicultural groups and  research also indicates that in South Africa some groups attach political meanings to some constructs which can impact on test performance. Developing the content and specifications of the test is dependent on the methods used to develop the test, which can be theory-based (this means that the theory used needs to be applicable in a multicultural context), empirical (this implies that for a multicultural context the criterion being measured need to only discriminate on the specific criterion and not on other variables) or criterion-referenced (this implies that the development of the cross  STUDENT NO: 44674481 11 cultural criterion need to be developed by a panel representing the different cultural groups). The different specifications and dimensions of tests should then be tabulated (Foxcroft, 2004). (c) Choosing the test format and item format, specifying the administration and scoring methods In choosing the best method to present a test it is important that the tools (paper vs. computer), the format in which it is presented (multiple choice, diagrams, etc) and the response methods (verbal, written, etc) take into account the capability and familiarity across the different cultural groups. The administration and the scoring methods should also be fair across cultural groups (Foxcroft, 2004). Moerdyk (2009) identifies seven key steps in test development. The first step conceptualising involves identifying what phenomenon is trying to be understood. The second step is identifying the observable measures of the phenomenon (operationalising). The third step involves quantifying the observable measures. This requires content validity, distracters and a response set. The next step involves a pilot session of the test. By administering the test to a pilot group that is a  representation of the final test group, the opportunities for improving the test can be identified. Once the test is administered to the pilot group the next step is to conduct an item analysis and the correlation of items identified. The item analysis can then be used to revise the test and compile the final test (what is known as validity shrinking). The last step is to develop a set of norms that can be used to measure the responses against for interpretation (Moerdyk, 2009). Lastly, the test needs to be published and the HPCSA provides guidelines for test development to ensure fair and ethical  standards are met. De beer (2006), research findings indicate that for a South African multicultural and multilingual context the need for dynamic assessment is important as it accounts for differences across cultural groups as well as identify opportunities for further development. Other issues that are challenging to psychologists are the influence of other factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, environment and cultural differences on test performance (Moerdyk, 2009). Some considerations for the future of assessment in South Africa are the use of technology advances in testing (artificialintelligence), the need to develop more culture specific tests, and the need for fair and ethical practices of psychometric testing (Moerdyk, 2009). 2. 4. 2. Core Characteristics of psychometric test Some of the core characteristics that psychometric tests should adhere to can be summarized as follows: ? It is based on standardized procedures and methods of assessment; ? It makes use of norms, comparing individuals performance against a category or norm group; ? It is scientifically proven to be valid (i. e. , it measures what it says), and reliable (the consistency and accuracy of  STUDENT NO: 44674481 12 measuring instruments); ? It can be applied in various institutions (health, education, occupation, etc. ) and the measures can be cross- culturally adapted with minimal test bias; ? It can be fairly administered to all individuals groups and organisations (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). In South Africa psychometric testing is regulated by the Employee Equity Act of 1998 which prohibits the use of psychometric tests or assessments unless it proves to be scientifically valid and reliable, is fair and free from bias (Foxcroft et al, 2005). 3. CONCLUSION From the above discussion it can be concluded that an understanding of the developments of psychological assessment is imperative to understanding the value in current society and in highlighting aspects to focus on change. In the past, psychological tests developed were used internationally in psychological assessments despite the differences in culture and language. This produced issues of bias and unfairness, as can be seen in misuse of assessments in the apartheid era in South Africa (Foxcroft et al, 2005). For a long time psychological tests in South Africa were perceived as unfair and  unjust (Sehlapelo & Terre Blanche, 1996). However, with the political changes in government and legislature ( such as the Employment Equity Act 1998) , the introduction of governing bodies (such as HPCSA) and the changes in ideologies (a move toward a dynamic approach in assessment), psychological assessment has progressed toward a more fair and ethical practice that is slowly changing these perceptions (Mauer, 2000). Challenges still do exist, however, in producing tests that can be applied in such a diverse country that has 11 official languages, and a vast number of cultural groups as  well as moving toward testing using the advances in technology. STUDENT NO: 44674481 13 4. REFERENCES Bartram, D. (2004). Assessment in organisations. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(2), 237-259. Claassen, N. C. W. (1997). Cultural differences, politics and test bias in South Africa. European Review of Applied Psychology, 4th trimester, 47(4), 297-307. De Beer, M. (2006). Dynamic testing: practical solutions to some concerns. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32(4), 8- 14. Foxcroft, C. D. (2004). Planning a psychological test in the multicultural South African context. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32 (4), 8-14. Foxcroft, C. D. (2006). Critically examining language bias in the South African adaptation of the WAIS-III. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32, p. 97-102. Foxcroft, C. D. (2011). Ethical issues related to psychological testing in Africa: What I have learned (so far). Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(2). Retrieved 10 April 2014 from the World Wide Web: http://dx. doi. org/10. 9707/2307-0919. 1022 Foxcroft, C. , Roodt, G. & Abrahams, F. (2005). Psychological assessment: a brief retrospective overview. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds.), An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (2nd ed. , pp. 8-23). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Foxcroft, C. , & Roodt, G. (2005). An overview of assessment: definition and scope. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds. ), An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (2nd ed. , pp. 3-7). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Gregory, R. J. (2000). Psychological testing: History, principles and application (3rd ed. ). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Joiner, D. A. (2000). Guidelines and ethical considerations for assessment center operations. Public Personnel  Management, 29(3), 315-331. STUDENT NO: 44674481 14 Louw, J. (2002). Psychology, history and society. South African Journal of Psychology, 32(1), 1-8. Louw, J. & van Hoorn, W. (1997). Psychology, conflict, and peace in South Africa: Historical notes. Journal of Peace Psychology, 3(3), 233-243. Mauer, K. F. (2000). Psychological test use in South Africa. Retrieved November 24, 2003 from the World Wide Web : http. //sunsite. wits. ac. za/conference/psychology/pai1 Moerdyk, A. (2009). The principles and practices of psychological assessment. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Painter, D. & Terre Blanche, M. (2004). Critical psychology in South Africa: Looking back and looking forwards. Draft of a paper written for the Greek journal Utopia, 24 February. Retrieved on 15 May, 2014, from http://www. criticalmethods. org/collab/critpsy. htm Patterson, H & Uys, K. (2005). Critical issues in psychological test use in the South African workplace. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(3), 12-22. Sehlapelo, M. & Terre Blanche, M. (1996). Psychometric testing in South Africa: Views from above and below. Psychology in Society, 21, 49-59. Setshedi, M. J. (2008). Investigating the use of psychological assessment in South African schools. Unpublished Masters Dissertation. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand. Retrieved 10 April 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://wiredspace. wits. ac. za/handle/10539/5927. Van de Vijver, A. J. R. & Rothmann, I. (2004). Assessment in multicultural groups: the South African case. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30(4), 1-7. Van der Merwe, R. P. (2002). Psychometric testing and human resource management. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 28(2), 77-86. Wassenaar, D. R. (1998). A history of ethical codes in South African psychology: an insider‘s view. South African Journal  of Psychology, 28(3), 135-145. STUDENT NO: 44674481 15 5. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 5. 1 70%. I feel I have understood the question and logic to the assignment. I have best understood the value of psychological assessment and the developments in South Africa and I feel I need to improve on how fairness can be enhanced in testing. 5. 2 Foxcraft & Roodt (2009) was most useful. I have used other journal articles for reference and examples such as other studies by by Foxcroft, as well as some internet references (example dissertation on the use of psychological assessment). 5. 3. 2 months, approximately 1-2 hours daily 5. 4. It is relevant in the working context as it provides an appreciation and understanding of the value of psychological assessment as well as creates awareness of the challenges and opportunities for fairness and ethical practices in assessment 5. 5. Yes. It provides guidelines on how tests should be used, where it should be used, what aspects to consider in test development, what are the governance systems in place for fair and ethical testing, what challenges and opportunities exist for further development. 5. 6. I would like to improve my knowledge in referencing techniques, logical and systematic application of work. I would like to improve on my knowledge of dynamic testing by reading more literature. 5. 7. The quality of material is very good, it provides clear guidelines; gives one the opportunity to reflect on overall concepts and to assess quality of work. 5. 8. Yes the learning outcomes and assessment criteria was helpful in planning the assignment 5. 9. Yes the lecturer provided timeous guidelines and support on how to answer the questions as well as the important aspects to be covered in this learning outcome.